As a result of numerous studies in different countries An amazing picture emerged: from birth to 3 years, a child goes through half of his intellectual development, i.e. in the very first hours of life, the basic qualities of his psyche are laid down, his first abilities begin to form.

It is these first years that greatly depend on what adults will do for the development of the child. Unfortunately, the majority, paying the main attention in the first years of a baby’s life to caring for him, do not attach much importance to the conditions of his development.

The opportunity to develop does not remain unchanged. After birth, as the child grows, his brain matures and becomes capable of functioning. This is the best time to begin the development of all diverse human abilities.

Early age is a period of rapid formation of all psychophysiological processes. / In 1 year, the child’s weight triples (the next tripling of weight occurs only at 10-11 years). Growth increases by 40% by 1 year, another 40% increase. in 5 months

The physical and neuropsychological development of children in the first two years of life is characterized by a rapid pace. During this period, the child’s height and weight intensively increase, and all body functions intensively develop. By the age of one year, the child masters independent walking. In the second and third years of life, his basic movements improve, he begins to coordinate his motor activity with others.

He makes great progress in mastering his native language.

The active vocabulary of a one-year-old child includes 10-12 words, by 2 years - up to 200-300, by 3 - up to 1500 words.

At an early age, children are characterized by great instability of their emotional state. Ensuring a positive emotional mood, balanced behavior, and protecting the nervous system are important tasks in early childhood pedagogy.

The imperfection of nervous processes (the predominance of excitation over inhibition) is manifested in the behavior of children: they are excitable, move a lot, and are incapable of expectations.

Children easily form conditioned reflexes and find it difficult to change them. This obliges teachers to promptly develop the necessary skills in children. Avoid developing bad habits.

Insufficient mobility of nervous processes manifests itself in the difficulty of transition from sleep to wakefulness and from wakefulness to sleep and other situations (activities)

The early functioning of the cerebral cortex makes it possible to raise children from the first months of life.

On days 9-10, the first conditioned reflex to the feeding position is developed.

By 3 months, the baby can develop conditioned reflexes with the participation of all analyzers.

The development of the brain is ensured by its intensive activity under the influence of external influences, under the influence of education. If there are no external influences or they are insufficient, then the development of the central nervous system is delayed. These provisions put forward by N.M. Shchelovanov, were given the opportunity to reveal the cause of the mental hospitalism that took place in children. institutions in the first years of Soviet power.

Hospitalism is defined as a set of negative impacts that have an inhibitory effect on the physical and mental development of a child raised in children's institution closed type. Changes in the normal course of development and behavior of children occur as a result of improper organization of children’s lives in a child care institution, underestimation of the role of education in the first years of life (limitations of movement and medical and hygienic care.

The phenomenon of hospitalism is characterized as follows:

A sharp lag in key indicators physical development(weight, height, circumference chest, a large number of diseases)

Mental hospitalism manifests itself in general lethargy, low mobility in the late development of movements (only by the age of 2 years do children master walking), speech (by the age of 3 years they pronounce individual words)

A negative emotional state predominates, and various obsessive movements occur in the form of automatic shaking of the head, body or arm.

Under the leadership of N.M. Aksarina and N.M. Shchelovanova, a system of raising children has been created in our country early age. Its implementation helped to quickly overcome hospitalism in preschool institutions.

IN The higher nervous activity of a young child has its own characteristics. Conditioned reflexes arise in children relatively quickly, but are consolidated slowly. Many conditioned reflexes, and, consequently, skills, habits, learned rules of behavior, even by the age of three are not sufficiently stable. And if they are not supported, they are easily destroyed.

The higher nervous activity of young children is characterized by an imbalance of two main nervous processes. Excitation processes prevail over inhibition processes. Positive conditioned reflexes are developed faster than inhibitory ones. It is much easier to teach a child to do something than to teach him to refrain from an unwanted action. Inhibitory conditioned reflexes require more repetitions than positive conditioned reflexes.

It is precisely because of these features small child It is very difficult to maintain an inhibited state for a long time (for example, stand calmly next to your mother and wait for her to discuss all the problems with a friend she meets). You should begin to form inhibitory conditioned reflexes that delay the child’s activity in response to the word “no” already at the end of the first year of life. In the second or third year, it is necessary to explain to the child why this or that object cannot be taken, why the action must be stopped. Features of the higher nervous activity of children include relatively weak mobility of nervous processes. Children cannot quickly start or slow down any action. Therefore, you cannot require them to quickly switch from one type of activity to another:

This is the period of the most rapid physical and mental development of the child. The features of this period are that it ensures the general development of the child, which serves as the foundation for the future acquisition of any special knowledge and skills and the mastery of various types of activities. One of the features of preschoolers is that they love share their knowledge and skills with each other. This feature is explained by the activity of a child’s nature, as well as by the fact that mentally a child is always closer to another child, so he can explain more clearly than an adult. Preschool children usually remember easily what they hear is often memorized mechanically, without thinking about the meaning of what they heard, and, as a rule, without understanding it. They are characterized by involuntary attention, they are easily distracted and cannot be focused on any one object or phenomenon for a long time.

Tasks of sensory education. Contents of sensory education.

Tasks sensory education of preschool children:

1) formation of a system of perceptual (examination) actions in children;

2) formation of a system of sensory standards in children;

3) developing in children the ability to independently apply the system of perceptual actions and the system of sensory standards in practical cognitive activity.

The content of sensory education is a range of properties and qualities, relationships of objects and phenomena that must be mastered by a preschool child. The successful execution of practical actions depends on a preliminary perception and analysis of what needs to be done. The ability to perceive objects, analyze them, compare, generalize is not formed by itself in the course of one or another activity; requires special training for a specific system. Thus, it is important to highlight in objects the shape, size, color, materials, parts and their spatial relationship, the speed and direction of movement of the object relative to others, the ratio of objects in size, the distance of objects, etc. The sensory education program also includes methods for examining objects, for example: stroking to highlight smoothness or roughness; squeezing, pressing to determine hardness or softness; weighing in the palm of your hand to determine mass, etc. The sensory education program also includes Sensory reference system- these are generalized ideas about the properties, qualities and relationships of objects. These are standards of color (color spectrum), shapes (geometric planar and volumetric forms), spatial position and directions (top, bottom, left, right, etc.), measurement standards (meter, kilogram, liter, etc.), time duration (minute, second, hour, day, etc.), sound standards, speech sounds, pitch intervals (tone, semitone), etc. In life, a child encounters a huge variety of shapes, colors and other properties of objects. Mastering the system of sensory standards and their verbal designations makes it easier for the child to navigate the world around him, helps him see the familiar in the unfamiliar, notice the features of the unfamiliar, and accumulate new sensory experience. The child becomes more independent in cognition and activity, rises to a new, higher level of knowledge - generalized and systematized.

54. Stages and methods of sensory education of pupils.

The conditions for sensory education in kindergarten are:

1. meaningful, productive activities for children.

Productive activity(drawing, sculpting, appliqué, design) K. not only creates favorable conditions for the development of sensations and perceptions, but also causes the need to master shape, color, and spatial orientations;

2. use of various means and forms of training organization in the didactic process: classes, didactic games, didactic exercises.

In the methodology of sensory educationpreschoolers can be divided into several stages.

The purpose of stage I is attracting children's attention to the sensory feature that must be mastered. To do this, the teacher invites the children to draw something, sculpt something, build something, or make some object that should be similar to the model or meet certain requirements. If children do not have sufficient sensory experience, they begin to complete the task without analyzing the sample, without selecting required material. As a result, the drawing or construction turns out to be different. The inability to achieve results in an activity confronts the child with the need for cognition, highlighting the characteristics of objects and material. An adult helps children see, highlight, and realize the property that should be taken into account in the activity. This point is the starting point for teaching children how to identify properties and features of objects.

Goal 2 stage - training children's perceptual actions and the accumulation of ideas about sensory features. During the learning process, the teacher shows and names the perceptual action and the sensory impression that was the result of the examination. He invites the children to repeat this idea. The most important thing is to organize repeated exercises in highlighting different qualities. At the same time, it is important to monitor the accuracy of the method the child uses and the accuracy of verbal notations.

The goal of the 3rd stage is to form ideas about standards . At an early age, a child acquires sensorimotor prestandards when he displays only individual features of objects - some features of shape, size of objects, distance, etc. At the age of 5 years, a child uses subject standards, i.e. correlates images of the properties of objects with certain objects. For example: “an oval looks like a cucumber”, “a triangle is like the roof of a house.” In older preschool age, children master a system of generally accepted standards, when the properties of objects themselves acquire a standard value in isolation from a specific object. During this period, the child already correlates the quality of objects with the generally accepted standards of objects that have been mastered: the grass is green, the apple is like a ball, the roof of the house is triangular, etc. Children are taught to use mastered quality standards to analyze objects, they are taught to compare an object with a standard, to notice similarities and differences.

The goal of the 4th stage is to create conditions for children to independently apply the acquired knowledge and skills in analyzing the surrounding reality and organizing their own activities. What is important here is a system of knowledge that requires independent analysis when performing it, taking into account certain qualities, properties, and relationships. For example, selection of materials and tools for work, etc. All types of activities are widely used both in classes and in everyday life.

55. Formation of early childhood pedagogy.

Pedagogy of the Republic of Dagestan began. in himself field of knowledge at the beginning of the 20th century. Views on RD pedagogy were initially formed in the context of ideas about children from birth to entry into school. Most scientists and practitioners, emphasizing the importance of the first years of life for a person’s subsequent development, argued that best conditions for the education and training of young children can only be in the family.

J. Komensky (1592-1670) in his work “The Great Didactics” laid the foundation of the public education system and formulated the general principles of education. phenomena, outlined the main problems of pedagogy - goals, objectives, content, methods, organizational forms of education, identified 4 stages of development of the younger generation- childhood, adolescence, adolescence, manhood.

J.-J. Rousseau (1712-1778). He believed that “the parents themselves should raise eight children,” but they will raise them. the process should be brought into accordance with the nature of the child and the natural laws of his development

I. Pestalozzi (1746-1827). He argued that the purpose of vos-I is to “reveal the true humanity”, and that to the awareness of one’s connection with Everyone comes into the human race through the process of family reunion. In “A Book for Mothers” he wrote about how a mother should nurture a child from an early age and lead him to knowledge of the environment. peace, love for people, instill work skills. Pestalozzi pointed out that in societies. vos-and should use those advantages, cat. has homemade vos-e.

F. Froebel (1782-1852) attached paramount importance to raising a small child in the family.

M. Montessori (1870-1952). She was a supporter of free thinking; her system was based on the idea that a child has an innate need for freedom and spontaneity. Montessori developed standardized autodidacts. materials that themselves encourage children, freely choosing one activity or another, to perform actions as the teacher intended. By working with insert cubes, frames with clasps, keyboard boards, etc., the child acquires knowledge and skills, develops observation, patience, will, and the ability to discover and correct his own

errors. Montessori pedagogy makes it possible to educate children not through direct influence on them, but through the organization of special education. images environment.

Humanistic ideas developed in the works of J. Comenius, J.-J. Rousseau, I. Pestalozzi, formed the basis of the theory and practice of Western European and domestic pedagogy. A great contribution to the development of social systems for children was made by such outstanding teachers as F. Frebel, K.D. Ushinsky, P.F. Lesgaft et al.

The first institutions for public education of young children were orphanages; mass nurseries and kindergartens began to be organized in the 20th century. in connection with the involvement of women in production. The transition of educational functions to the state led to the need to create special education programs. In Russia, the first education. programs for children in the Republic of Dagestan were created in the 30-50s of the 20th century. In the 60s, a standard “Program of education in kindergartens” was created and put into practice, an integral part of which was the program for the education of young children. Within the framework of this program, tasks, content and methods of working with children were developed, aimed at physical, mental, aesthetic and moral development. This program was built on the principles of authoritarian pedagogy. In the 80-90s, in connection with the educational reform, there was a turn to personality-oriented pedagogy, aimed at creating the most favorable conditions for the discovery and development of the abilities of each child, respect for his personality, dignity, ensuring completeness his life at every age stage. The implementation of the principles of democratization and humanization of education presupposes the variability of education, i.e. variety of organizational forms of education and educational programs.

56. The meaning of social moral education preschoolers. Features of social and moral education and development of preschool children. MORAL EDUCATION of preschoolers - the purposeful activity of the teacher to develop in children moral feelings, ethical ideas, instilling norms and rules of behavior that determine their attitude towards themselves, other people, things, nature, society

MORAL DEVELOPMENT of preschoolers is a process of positive qualitative changes in moral ideas, feelings, skills and motives of children’s behavior.

The foundations of a highly moral personality are laid in preschool age, as evidenced by the studies of A.N. Leontyev, V. S. Mukhina, S. G. Yakobson, V. G. Nechaeva, T. A. Markova and others.

In the preschool years, under the guidance of adults, the child acquires initial experience of behavior, relationships with close people, peers, things, nature, and learns the moral norms of the society in which he lives. Preschool age is characterized by great opportunities for the moral education of children: in various developing types of their activities, some ways of consciously managing their behavior, activity, independence, and initiative are successfully formed. In a society of peers, positive relationships are established between preschoolers, goodwill and respect for others are formed, and a feeling of camaraderie and friendship arises. Proper upbringing prevents a child from accumulating negative experiences and prevents the development of undesirable skills and behavioral habits, which can adversely affect the formation of his moral qualities.

Early childhood – this is a period from 1 year to 3 years. At this age, changes occur in personal development, the cognitive sphere, and the social situation of development.

Neoplasms of infancy lead to changes in the relationship between the child and the adult, which in turn leads to the formation of a new social situation of development, which consists in the emergence of joint activities between a child and an adult, and also that this activity becomes subject. The essence of joint activity is the assimilation of socially developed ways of using objects, that is, an adult teaches the child how to properly use surrounding objects, and also explains what they are needed for and where they should be used. The social situation of a child’s development at this age looks like this: “Child – OBJECT – Adult.” As can be seen from this triad, the subject is important for the child. You can verify this by watching how a child plays: he constantly looks at the object he is passionate about, be it a car, a chair, a doll, a spoon, etc. There may be a feeling that he does not need anything else and no one needed, his attention is focused only on the object of passion. But this is not so, because without an adult a child cannot master human ways of using objects.

Joint activity becomes objective, because the motive of this activity lies in the object itself and the method of its use. Communication at this age takes the form of organizing objective activities. In other words, it occurs at the moment of explaining the correct use of a particular item. Communication develops intensively and becomes verbal, because mastering objects using only emotional coloring cannot be effective.

6.2. Development of the child’s cognitive sphere

At this age, perception, thinking, memory, and speech develop. This process is characterized by the verbalization of cognitive processes and the emergence of their arbitrariness.

Development of perception determined by three parameters: perceptual actions(integrity of the perceived object), sensory standards(the emergence of standards of sensations: sound, light, taste, tactile, olfactory) and actions of correlation. In other words, the process of perception consists in identifying the most characteristic qualities, signs, and properties of a given object or situation; drawing up a certain image based on them; correlation of these standard images with objects of the surrounding world. This is how the child learns to divide objects into classes: dolls, cars, balls, spoons, etc.

From one year on, the process of learning about the world around us begins to actively develop. A child aged one to two years uses various options, and from one and a half to two years, he has the ability to solve a problem by guessing (insight), that is, the child suddenly finds a solution to a given problem, avoiding the trial and error method.

From the second year of life, the child’s perception changes. Having learned to influence one object on another, he is able to foresee the outcome of a situation, for example, the possibility of pulling a ball through a hole, moving one object with the help of another, etc. The child can distinguish shapes such as circle, oval, square, rectangle, triangle, polygon; colors – red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple.

Thanks to the development of perception, by the end of early childhood the child begins to develop mental activity. This is expressed in the emergence of the ability to generalize, transfer the experience gained from initial conditions to new ones, in establishing connections between objects through experimentation, memorizing them and using them in solving problems. A one and a half year old child can predict and indicate the direction of movement of an object, the location of a familiar object, and overcome obstacles on the way to achieving the desired goal. And after a year and a half, the reaction of choosing an object appears based on the most striking and simple characteristics: shape and color.

Continues in early childhood development of thinking, which from the visual-effective gradually turns into the visual-figurative, i.e. actions with material objects are replaced by actions with images. The internal development of thinking proceeds in this way: intellectual operations develop and concepts are formed.

Visual and effective thinking appears by the end of the first year of life and remains dominant until 3.5–4 years. At first, the child can abstract and highlight shape and color, so when grouping objects, he first of all pays attention to the size and color of the object. At the age of about two years, he identifies objects based on essential and non-essential features. At 2.5 years old, a child identifies objects according to essential characteristics: color, shape, size.

A feature of thinking in early childhood is syncretism. Syncretism means incomprehension: a child, solving a problem, does not identify individual parameters in it, perceiving the situation as a holistic picture. The role of the adult in this case is to isolate and analyze individual details from the situation, from which the child will then identify the main and minor ones.

Visual-figurative thinking appears at 2.5–3 years and remains dominant until 6–6.5 years. The formation of this thinking is associated with the formation of elementary self-awareness and the beginning of the development of the ability for voluntary self-regulation, accompanied by a developed imagination.

Memory development. By the age of two, a child develops working memory. Easy logical and themed games, he can draw up an action plan for a short period of time, and does not forget the goal set a few minutes ago.

Speech development. By the age of one year, a child can already call things by their proper names. He has a wealth of experience in understanding the world around him, he has formed an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bparents, food, the environment, toys. And yet, of the many qualities contained in a word as a concept, the child first assimilates only individual properties characteristic of the object with which this word was initially associated in his perception.

A one-year-old child reacts to words as to the situation as a whole. The word turns out to be associated with the situation, and not with the object representing it. The child carefully observes the facial expressions and gestures of the speaking adult, catching from them the meaning of what is being said.

From 11 months, the transition from pre-phonemic to phonemic speech and the formation of phonemic hearing begins, which ends by the age of two, when the child can distinguish words that differ from each other by one phoneme. The transition from prephonemic to phonemic speech lasts 3 years and ends in the fourth year of life. At the age of 3, the child learns to correctly use cases, first begins to use one-word sentences, then, at the age of 1.5 to 2.5 years, he can combine words, combining them into two-three-word phrases or sentences of two words, where there is also a subject and predicate. Then, thanks to the development of the grammatical structure of speech, he masters all cases and is able to construct complex sentences with the help of function words. At the same time, conscious control over the correct pronunciation of speech utterances arises.

After 1.5 years, activity in independent speech and verbal communication is noted. The child begins to ask himself the names of objects or phenomena that interest him. First, he uses the language of gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes or a pointing gesture, and then a question expressed in verbal form is added to the gesture. The child learns to control the behavior of other people using speech. But a child aged 2.5 to 3 years cannot follow the instructions of adults, especially when it is necessary to choose one action from several; he will be able to make this choice only when he is closer to 4 years old.

During the second year of life, the child begins to assimilate the verbal designation of surrounding objects, and then the names of adults, the names of toys, and only then - parts of the body, i.e., nouns, and by the age of two, with normal development, he understands the meaning of almost all words related to the surrounding reality . This is facilitated by the development semantic function children's speech, i.e. determining the meaning of a word, its differentiation, clarification and assignment to words of generalized meanings that are associated with them in the language.

By the age of 2, children have a clear understanding of the purpose of the household and personal hygiene items around them. They understand general questions that require a yes or no answer.

At about 3 years old, the child begins to listen carefully to what adults are talking about and loves having stories, fairy tales, and poems read to him.

By the age of 1.5 years, a child learns from 30 to 100 words, but rarely uses them. By the age of 2 he knows 300 words, and by 3 – 1200–1500 words.

The following stages have been identified in the development of speech:

1) syllables (instead of words);

2) words-sentences;

3) two-word sentences (for example, “mom here”);

4) sentences of three or more words;

5) correct speech (grammatically consistent sentences).

The main trends in the development of speech of a young child are as follows.

Passive speech is ahead of active speech in development.

The child discovers that each object has its own name.

At the border between the 2nd and 3rd years of life, the child intuitively “discovers” that the words in a sentence are related to each other.

There is a transition from the polysemy of children's words to the first functional generalizations built on the basis of practical actions.

Phonemic hearing is ahead of the development of articulation. The child first learns to listen to speech correctly and then to speak correctly.

Mastery of the syntactic structure of the language is carried out.

The functions of speech develop, a transition occurs from the indicative (indicative) to the nominative (denoting) functions of speech.

6.3. Personal formations

In early childhood, along with development cognitive sphere and children personal development. First of all it happens personal socialization child, because, observing adults, he tries to imitate them: to do as they do, to behave as they behave in certain situations. The process of imitation occurs through communication and interaction between an adult and a child. Thus, observing people’s behavior and imitating them becomes one of the main sources of a child’s personal socialization. The sense of attachment, which is formed in a child by the end of the first year of life and continues to develop in early childhood, also plays an important role in the development of personality. The reason for attachment may lie in the fact that adults satisfy the child’s basic needs, reduce their anxiety, provide safe conditions existence and active study of the surrounding reality, form the basis for normal relationships with people in later life.

When the mother is close to the child, he is more active and inclined to explore the environment. A positive assessment of a child’s actions and personal qualities by a parent creates in him a sense of self-confidence, faith in his abilities and capabilities. If a child is attached to his parents and they pay him the same, then he is more obedient and disciplined. If parents are friendly, attentive and strive to satisfy the child’s needs, then he develops a personal, personal attachment.

If a child is deprived of constant positive emotional contact with his mother or loved ones, then he will subsequently have problems establishing normal, trusting relationships with others.

Happens in early childhood formation of self-awareness. The development of self-awareness will lead to the formation self-esteem(see 3.6 for details). Development noted independence. The phrase “I myself” speaks best about its manifestation. The child no longer always wants to be helped. Having mastered walking, he finds barriers and obstacles for himself and tries to overcome them. All this gives the child pleasure and indicates that he is beginning to develop qualities such as willpower, perseverance, and determination.

At this age, many children become disobedient. When they are told that they cannot do this, they continue to do it their own way. This often happens due to children’s desire to understand the world around them as quickly as possible.

From the age of 1.5 years, the child begins to realize his capabilities and his own personality traits. A two-year-old child understands that he can influence people and achieve the desired goal.

Children begin to develop empathy– understanding the emotional state of another person. You can observe how a one and a half year old child strives to console an upset person: he hugs him, kisses him, gives him a toy, etc.

The child has a need in achieving success. This need is formed in stages. First, the child begins to realize his successes and failures, then he can explain the successes and failures of other people, then he acquires the ability to distinguish tasks by degree of difficulty and assess the degree of development of his own skills necessary to complete a given task, and finally he can evaluate his own abilities and efforts. efforts.

Table 5

Main achievements in the mental development of a child from 1 to 3 years old

In table 5 achievements are listed mental development child, with whom he approaches the crisis of three years.

6.4. Crisis of three years

The three-year crisis is characterized by the fact that personal changes occurring in the child lead to changes in his relationships with adults. This crisis arises because the child begins to separate himself from other people, is aware of his capabilities, and feels himself a source of will. He begins to compare himself with adults, and he involuntarily has a desire to perform the same actions as them, for example: “When I grow up, I will brush my teeth myself.”

At this age, the following traits appear: negativism, stubbornness, devaluation, obstinacy, self-will, protest-rebellion, despotism. These characteristics were described by L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that the emergence of such reactions contributes to the emergence of a need for respect and recognition.

Negativism manifests itself in a negative reaction to an adult’s demand or request, and not to the action itself. For example, a child ignores the demands of one family member or teacher, while obeying others. It was also noted that negativism mainly manifests itself in relationships with relatives, and not with strangers. Perhaps subconsciously the child feels that such behavior towards his family will not cause him serious harm. Therefore, we must remember that negativism and disobedience are two different things.

Another characteristic of the three-year crisis is stubbornness. Its reason is not the child’s desire to get what he wants or demand at any cost, but so that his opinion is taken into account. It doesn’t matter to the child whether he gets this thing or not, he needs to establish himself in his “adulthood”, in the fact that his opinion also means something. Therefore, a stubborn child will insist on his own even if he does not really need this thing.

Next characteristic – depreciation– is inherent in all crises. It manifests itself in the fact that all habits and values ​​that were previously dear begin to depreciate. For example, a child may throw and even break a previously beloved toy, refuse to comply with previously accepted rules of behavior, now considering them unreasonable, etc.

Obstinacy is directed against accepted norms of behavior in the family and is similar to negativism and stubbornness. For example, if it is customary in the family to have dinner together, then the child begins to refuse to eat at this particular time, and then he develops an appetite.

Self-will is expressed in the child’s desire to do everything himself. If in infancy he strived for physical independence, now his behavior is aimed at independence of intentions and plans. This behavior manifests itself not only in the actions offered to adults, for example: “Do it yourself,” “You’re already big and can do it,” etc., but also in the persistent desire to do this and not otherwise. This feeling captures the child to such an extent that he openly contrasts his desires with the expectations of others. The manifestation of independence is reflected in relationships with adults. When a child realizes he can do something myself, He doesn't need adult help. They should understand this and try to avoid negative statements regarding on this occasion, do not criticize the child, but allow him to show independence.

Protest riot expressed in frequent quarrels children with parents. According to L.S. Vygotsky, “the child is at war with others, in constant conflict with them” (Vygotsky L.S., 1991).

Manifestations despotism are as follows: the child begins to dictate to everyone around him how to behave, and strives to be listened to and acted as he says. Such behavior can occur when the child is alone in the family or the last one.

6.5. The leading activity in early childhood

In early childhood, the leader becomes subject activity, which affects both mental development and communication with adults.

In infancy, activity is manipulative in nature: the child can repeat actions shown to adults, transfer the learned action to another object, and master some of his own actions. But when manipulating, the child uses only the external properties and relationships of objects. In early childhood, objects become for the child not just an object, but a thing that has a specific purpose and a specific way of use. The child tries to master more and more new actions of the subject, and the role of the adult is to mentor, cooperate, and help in difficult situations.

By manipulating an object at the end of infancy and at the beginning of early childhood, the child will never be able to understand its functions. For example, he can open and close a cabinet door an infinite number of times, but will never understand its functional purpose. Only an adult can explain why this or that thing is needed.

Mastering the purpose of an object does not guarantee that the child will use it only for its intended purpose, but what is important is that he will know how, when and where it should be done. For example, having learned that pencils are needed for writing and drawing, a child can nevertheless roll them around the table or build something with them.

At first, the action and the object are closely related in the child’s understanding. An example of this is the following fact: he cannot comb his hair with a stick or drink from a cube. But over time, the subject is separated from the action.

There are three phases in the development of the connection between an action and an object:

1) any actions can be performed with the object;

2) the item is used only for its intended purpose;

3) free use of an object is possible, but only if its true purpose is known.

D.B. Elkonin identified two directions for the development of substantive activity:

1. Development of action from joint with an adult to independent execution.

The path of development of action from joint to independent was studied by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov. They showed that at first the orientation, execution and evaluation of the action are under the control of the adult. This manifests itself, for example, in the fact that an adult takes the child’s hands and performs actions with them. Then a partial or joint action is performed, i.e. the adult begins it, and the child continues. Then the action is performed on the basis of demonstration and, finally, on the basis of verbal instructions.

2. Development of means and methods of orienting the child in the context of the action. It goes through several stages. The first stage consists of:

a) in the non-specific use of tools (manipulation of objects);

b) using an object when the methods of its use have not yet been formed, for example, a child understands what a spoon is for, but when eating he takes it very low;

c) mastering a specific method of use.

The second stage occurs when the child begins to perform actions in an inadequate situation. In other words, the action is transferred from one object to another, for example, a child, having learned to drink from a mug, drinks from a glass. There is also a transfer of action according to the situation, for example, having learned to put on shoes, the child tries to pull them on the ball.

The third stage is accompanied by the emergence of game action. Here the adult does not tell the child what to do, how to play or use an object.

Gradually, the child begins to correlate the properties of objects with operations, that is, he learns to determine what an object can best do, which operations are most suitable for a specific object.

The stages of formation of such fastenings were identified by P.Ya. Galperin. He believed that at the first stage the child varies his actions based not on the properties of the tool with which he wants to get the object he needs, but on the properties of the object itself. He called this stage “targeted trials.” At the second stage - “lying in wait” - the child finds effective method actions with an object and tries to repeat it. At the third stage - the “stage of obsessive intervention” - he tries to reproduce an effective method of influence and master it, at the fourth stage he discovers ways to regulate and change the action, taking into account the conditions in which it will have to be performed.

Correlative and instrumental actions are significant for mental development.

Correlating Actions consist of bringing several objects into certain spatial interactions - for example, folding pyramids from rings, using collapsible toys, etc.

Gun action- these are actions in which one object is used to influence other objects. The child masters instrumental actions in the process of learning under the guidance of an adult.

It was found that instrumental actions can be an indicator of the intellectual development of children, and subject actions indicate the degree of their learning and the breadth of contacts with adults.

Towards the end of early childhood, play and productive activities arise in object-tool activity.

Early childhood covers the period 1-3 years. Early childhood is the period of formation in the child of the first idea of ​​himself, self-esteem, gender identification, development of thinking and speech.

Mental development of children 1-3 years old

Mental development in early childhood allows the child to work with objects, but the child himself cannot discover the social actions of these objects. This contradiction will be resolved in working together child and adult with objects.

Social situation of development in early childhood: “child-object-adult”. In early childhood, an object completely occupies the child; he watches how an adult works with the object and tries to do the same. Without an adult, the baby will not be able to master the world of objects.

Leading activities during early childhood

The leading type of activity in early childhood is object-based activity. The transition from infancy to early childhood is associated with the development of a new attitude in the child to the world of objects.

The age limits of the early childhood period are from 1 year to 3 years. At the beginning, the child learns the direct purpose of the object and, with the help of an adult, learns to use the object correctly, but gradually the child acquires the ability to endow the object with non-existent properties and use the object in different ways.

Formation of the cognitive sphere

The formation of perception in children occurs through perceptual actions, sensory standards and through the actions of correlation. The child identifies qualities characteristic of an object, composes stable images on their basis and correlates, in his understanding of the standards, with surrounding objects. The development of perceptual actions helps the development of generalizations; the ability to highlight the main thing allows the child to further form classes and concepts.

A feature of a child’s development during early childhood is the formation of visual-figurative thinking. Visual and effective thinking, which arises in a child by the end of the first year of life, is leading until the age of 4 years. Visual-figurative thinking appears in a child at 2-3 years of age and is dominant until 6 or 6.5 years of age. Therefore, throughout the entire period of early childhood, and the age limits of the early childhood period are 1-3 years, the child will have a predominance of visual-effective thinking, and the child’s task is to learn to solve various kinds of questions using objects. The child should almost instantly be able to navigate the use of the item.

Syncretism is a feature of a child’s thinking at a given age, indivisibility. The child does not know how to isolate individual parts as a whole; the adult’s task is to teach, show how analysis is done, and how parts can be separated from the whole - the main thing, the secondary thing.

Formation of the personal sphere

Personality formation during early childhood develops through communication with adults. A child’s self-esteem is formed on the basis of an adult’s statements about the child. Criticism, remarks, ignoring the child - reduce the level of the child’s aspirations, generate self-doubt, and interfere with successful activities.

The personal new formation of the period of early childhood is:

• development of the child’s emotional needs;
• development of self-awareness: referring to oneself in the third person, at the age of three the appearance of “I”;
• the emergence of primary self-esteem;
• crisis of 3 years.

The development of a child at 3 years old consists of the emergence of a sense of independence and autonomy. With unfavorable development - a feeling of dependence on an adult.

Speech development in 3 year old children

The period of 1-3 years of a child is sensitive to speech acquisition. Autonomous speech turns into the child’s own active speech.

Speech development during early childhood proceeds in two directions: understanding of adult speech improves; own active speech develops.

The child does not immediately correctly name objects and their actions. One and a half one year old baby can learn from 30-40 words to 100, but uses words rarely. A 2-year-old child uses 300 words. A 3-year-old child can communicate using 500 to 1500 words.

Characteristics of the speech of a 3-year-old child:

• expansion of vocabulary;
• improving the pronunciation of words;
• mastering the grammatical structure of the native language;
• acquisition of coherent speech;
• the child knows almost all parts of speech;
• speech is a full-fledged means of communication;
• understanding the grammatical basis of the language and syntax.

Illustration pixabay.com

• 1. What developmental features specific to early childhood do you know?
• 2. What is the difference between the concepts of “leading activity” and “leading lines of development”?
• 3. How do uneven and spasmodic development differ and how do they manifest themselves?
• 4. What is the significance of the period of early childhood in ontogenesis?
• 5. What is the role of an adult in the development of an infant and young child?

The development of a child is a process of irreversible, directed and natural changes, leading to the emergence of qualitative and structural transformations at all levels of his integral individuality.

The development of a child during early childhood is characterized, first of all, by high dynamism, at the most intense pace. Above we gave a qualitative description of the changes occurring over the first three years, and now, as an example, let’s look at quantitative data related to both the physical and mental (speech) development of children:

The intensive pace of development is associated with such a feature as high ductility(that is, the ability to easily change under the influence of external influences), which determines the richest potential opportunities development. As the authors of the systems prove, “ early development"(G. Doman, P. Tyulenev, etc.), by the age of three, a child can master several languages, learn to read, type, play a musical instrument, etc. Masaru Ibuka agrees with them, calling his book “After Three It’s Too Late” (Kindergarten is Too Late).

The older the child gets, the slower he masters, for example, foreign language, the more effort is required from him when learning to read, write and count. According to B.P. Nikitin, who put forward the theory of NUVERS (Irreversible Decay of Opportunities for Effective Development of Abilities), every child at birth has enormous opportunities for developing abilities for any type of activity, but in the absence of appropriate conditions, the potential does not turn into the real. Missed opportunities during the years of rapid development will require much longer pedagogical work in the future, or may be lost forever.

Unfortunately, most adults underestimate the importance of the first three years of a child’s life and do not think about what they do every day. After all, this day can be equal to months, or even years, of subsequent life.

Therefore, every teacher and parent who has taken on the responsibility of raising a young child should always remember the words of the American psychologist John Watson: “If you spoil a child, and this can be done in a few days, then who can guarantee that this harm will be corrected in the future? "

The next feature of development, clearly manifested in the first three years of life, is his unevenness(heterochrony), which determines the identification of so-called leading lines of development.

Leading lines of development are called areas identified at a certain age segment, within which the greatest dynamics and plasticity of the formation and development of skills that determine the child’s behavior are noted of this age and having progressive significance in later life.

For example, in the first month of life, the development of the baby’s visual sphere becomes the leading line. The newborn cannot yet move, pick up toys, etc., but his visual reactions are intensively developing: every day he more successfully fixes with his gaze a bright object and traces its movement. According to the experimental data of E.G. Pilyugina, if an adult, starting from the 4-7th day of a child’s life, conducts short (for one minute) lessons several times a day, aimed at developing the ability to follow a moving object with his gaze, then by the end of the third week of life the child’s eye movements they become smooth, without losing the toy, and on this basis a new skill arises - active translation of the gaze from one object to another. Without special training, such skills appear only in the third month of life.

A baby who has learned to control the movements of his eyes spends most of his waking hours looking at his surroundings, which ensures the satisfaction of the need to receive impressions, fixes his gaze on the adult’s face, which becomes the basis for the development of communication activities. Trying to keep an object in sight, the child learns to turn his head.

Thus, it is in the development of the visual sphere of a newborn that we observe all four signs that make it possible to identify this line as the leading one.

Uneven development must be distinguished from its spasmodicity, manifested in alternating periods of some slowdown in development and jumps, when significant quantitative and qualitative changes occur over a short period of time. Such leaps in the development of children’s active speech are especially pronounced. The child begins to pronounce his first 5-10 words by the age of one year, but until the end of the second year of life he uses no more than 30 words, without changing them grammatically. At the age of two years (for some children earlier, for others later), the active vocabulary sharply - in just 2-3 months - increases to 200-300 words, the child begins to construct sentences of three or more words, grammatically coordinating them with each other.

A similar leap can be observed in the increase in the efficiency of the nervous system, when in 3-4 days the baby increases the period of his wakefulness by a whole hour and then stops there for several months.

Keeping diaries of observations of the development of their children by parents-teachers allows them to see the spasmodic nature of various lines of development. Consider, for example, diary entries regarding mastering walking.

Thus, the first marks about the baby’s independent steps appear when he turns 9 months old: “02.23 - took a couple of steps for the first time, 02.24 - walked four steps to his mother, 02.25 - took two steps from the chair to the table.” Over the next three weeks, the child fails to take more than two steps, and only on March 17 a new entry appears: “Took seven steps today.”

And four days later - March 21 - the baby takes “a record 18 steps with dry teeth in his teeth,” while the parent notices that the child “does better when he walks on his own; and when you call, after taking 2-4 steps, he falls.” But already on March 25, the baby “gets to his feet almost every minute and walks on his own, holding a toy in his hands, now this is his favorite activity; 27.03 - walks on his own at every opportunity, walks (with stops and squats) indescribable distances.” And then again a period of slow development begins: only on May 17, the parent makes a note that the child “walked independently on the street in boots for the first time for a long time.”

The period of early childhood is also characterized by such a feature as the closest relationship between health status, physical and mental development. Children experiencing emotional discomfort upon admission to kindergarten, not only partially regress in psychomotor development, but also sleep restlessly, lose weight, and begin to get sick. And on the contrary, ensuring positive, emotionally rich communication, as M.Yu. describes in his study. Kistyakovskaya, can improve the child’s condition even without drug therapy. Thus, the author tells the story of a girl, Tanya, who entered the research center at the age of 1 year 10 months, having the weight of a five-month-old (6.5 kg) and the height of an 11-month-old child. Tanya lay all the time, could not keep her head upright, did not take toys or even look at them. Teachers began to interact with the girl as with a baby in the first months of life - in the form of situational and personal communication. A month later, Tanya began to actively engage in communication with adults, focusing her eyes on toys, and her weight gain was about 1 kg. After three months, the girl learned to pick up objects, crawl, and sit down.

Examples can be given that reflect other aspects of this relationship. Thus, in the study by I.A. Arshavsky newborns were bathed in cool (t 24-28°) water almost before every feeding. As a result, babies born physiologically immature quickly caught up with their peers in anthropometric indicators, began to hold their heads earlier, crawl, and demonstrated progress in mental development. According to M.M. Koltsova, children of the second year of life, with whom additional 20-minute development exercises were carried out daily fine motor skills hands, after just a week of classes they were noticeably ahead of their peers in speech classes: while the former actively and quite accurately repeated the teacher’s onomatopoeia, the latter were mostly silent.

In early childhood, in comparison with other age periods, individual differences are most pronounced in the development of children.

So, for example, according to Yu.M. Khokhryakova, of the 300 children examined, by the time they reached the age of 2 years 3 months, 9% were at level I sensory development(they performed diagnostic tasks using practical tests), 46% - at level II (mastered practical fitting), 37% - at level III (they visually correlated the size and shape of objects in familiar situations) and 8% - at level IV (fluently correlated not only spatial, but also color properties of objects based on subject prestandards).

The breadth of the range of differences in the development of children not only of the same age group, but also of the same calendar age requires teachers to implement individual approach, and also updates the problem of developmental diagnostics.

Developmental diagnostics carried out during early childhood perform different functions: it serves as the basis for the individualization of education and training, and allows for the timely identification of developmental disorders. However, what is considered the norm of development? Let us consider, for example, such an indicator as “the child’s use of at least 10 words in free speech.” According to N.M. Aksarina, E.L. Frucht, this indicator characterizes the normal development of children at the age of one year. In contrast, I.G. Hall and N. Skinner believe that by the age of one year, only the most capable children have a dozen words in their active vocabulary, and therefore, as a normative indicator, this indicator should be attributed to the age of one and a half years (18 months). Meanwhile, a mass examination of children conducted in 2001 in St. Petersburg revealed the presence of not only individual, but also gender differences in this indicator. Among girls, 50% of those examined used ten words by the 17th month, and among boys - only by the 21st month of life. If the “standard bar” is raised to 85%, then for girls the indicator in question will need to be attributed to the 26th month, and for boys - to the 31st month.

Child development during early childhood is different the most pronounced dependence on the influences of an adult. If there had not been an adult next to the newborn, he would not have lived even a few hours. And the point here is not only that an adult is caring for him. Back in the 13th century, Emperor Friedrich Hohenstaufen decided to conduct an experiment to find out what language (Latin, Greek or German) children would speak if they were provided good care and food, but do not communicate with them. As legend has it, the babies were cared for by mute nurses, but none of the subjects under such conditions lived to be two years old and, of course, did not utter a single word.

Life itself conducts similar experiments. During the Second World War, shelters found a large number of children separated from their parents. Rene Spitz, observing the behavior of such children, noted that many of them develop “ classic shape hospitalism": children become apathetic, display a negative attitude towards adults and, despite adequate nutrition and normal hygienic conditions, die.

But it is surprising that the unique process of rapid development of a child in the first three years of life, although it depends on the influence of an adult, at the same time, it would seem, does not require his pedagogical competence. As evidenced, for example, by the ethnographic observations of M. Mead, young children growing up in primitive African cultures are significantly superior to their European peers in many indicators of psychomotor development. Why is this happening? How do parents who do not have a pedagogical education guide their activities? We will consider these questions in the next paragraph.

So, early childhood- a special age period in which development child is carried out most intensely is different high plasticity, unevenness and discontinuity, especially close interconnection physical, mental development and health status. This period is characterized by bright severity of individual differences in the development of children, as well as the strongest dependence on the influences of an adult.

Test tasks:

• 1. Give your own examples illustrating each of the listed features of child development.
• 2. Give examples that prove or disprove the NUVERS theory.
• 3. Show, using a specific example, the interdependence of the identified features of children’s development during early childhood.