In England victorian era the woman who wore makeup was considered a prostitute. Although a pale complexion and bright red lips were popular even before Queen Victoria came to power, the ruler called such makeup "vulgar." This prompted most English women to give it up and try something more natural.

As a result, in the 1800s, a huge number of inventions appeared, designed to emphasize the natural beauty of women, but many of them mutilated the bodies of the fair sex or slowly killed them with pesticides.

1. Face whitening

In the 1800s, women strove to have extremely pale complexions. The upper class wanted to show that they were rich enough not to work under the scorching sun. They tried to make their skin so pale and "transparent" that others could clearly see the veins on their faces. In the Victorian era, people were obsessed with death, so they considered it attractive when a woman looked unhealthy.

In one of the books of the Victorian era, women were recommended to apply a small amount of opium from lettuce leaves to their face at night and wash their face with ammonia in the morning to always look fresh and pale. To remove freckles and age spots, as well as sunburn marks, they advised using arsenic, which, according to representatives of the Victorian era, helped to look younger and more attractive. They knew that arsenic was poisonous and addictive, but they deliberately used it to achieve their ideal of beauty.

2. Burning hair

In the 1800s, there were curly hair... The first curling irons were tongs that needed to be heated over a fire. If a woman was in a hurry to apply a red-hot curling iron to her hair, she had to say goodbye to them: they instantly burned out.

As a result, baldness became a common problem among women during the Victorian era. But even if they were adept at using curling irons, the constant wearing of curly hairstyles was detrimental to the scalp.

To combat hair-related problems, women have tried various remedies, including teas and medications. Some of them washed their hair in water with ammonia solution to stimulate hair growth. As you know, ammonia can burn the respiratory tract and skin. He also "eats away" the eyes.

To combat hair loss, women were advised to use a mixture of equal parts of quinine sulfate and an aromatic tincture. To prevent all these problems, they were advised to avoid direct contact of the curling iron with the hair, which many realized too late.

3. Cleansing the blood

During the Victorian era, many people died of consumption (pulmonary tuberculosis), and society was terribly addicted to death. The complexion of people who just fell ill with consumption was considered the most pleasant and beautiful. Women suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis constantly vomited blood, but this was considered normal. Representatives of the Victorian era claimed that in this way the body was cleared of dirt, which made the skin clear and pale.

During illness, women were advised to eat as little as possible: a handful of strawberries for breakfast, half an orange for lunch, and a cherry for dinner. If they felt that this was not enough for them to maintain their strength, they could drink some warm broth.

Victorian beauty experts advised women to apply ammonium carbonate and powdered charcoal to their skin to maintain their beauty. In addition, they were advised to take various medications every three months to "purify" the blood, although in reality they were sick because they tended to look painfully pale.

4. Devices for correcting the shape of the nose

During the Victorian era, many men and women were unhappy with their physical characteristics, as well as modern people... For many years before the advent of plastic surgery, there were many different companies that produced devices to correct the shape of the nose. These metal devices were tied to a person's face to make the soft cartilage of the nose smaller or straighter than it used to be.

Devices for correcting the shape of the nose have not lost their popularity even after many years. Hezar Bigg invented a spring-loaded, strappy contraption that helped hold a metal “mask” on a person's face while he slept or did other things during the day. With the help of it, the nose took on a more attractive shape over time.

Dr. Sid, a Victorian-era Parisian surgeon, told his English colleagues that he had created a metal spring-loaded device that fixed the large nose of his fifteen-year-old patient in just three months.

5. Eating tapeworms

In the Victorian era, corsets were very popular, designed to make a woman's waist as thin as possible. To lose weight, some women deliberately swallowed tapeworm (tapeworm) eggs. These slimy little creatures hatched inside the stomach and devoured whatever the woman ate. Having achieved her goal of losing weight, she took pills in order to remove the tapeworm. In the Victorian era, it was believed that the worm would crawl out on its own if you sat with your mouth open in front of a bowl of milk. However, as you know, the length of tapeworms can reach 9 meters, therefore, even if this method was effective, a person could suffocate in the process.

Dr. Meyers from Sheffield (a city in England) invented a device designed to extract tapeworms from a patient's stomach. It was a metal cylinder filled with food. He was pushed down the throat of an infected person who was forbidden to eat for several days. This was necessary in order to lure the tapeworm into a cylinder, which was subsequently removed from the patient's stomach with it inside. Unfortunately, many of those who turned to Meyers for help died of suffocation during this strange procedure.

6. Deadly eye drops with belladonna

Besides pale in color facial skin, women with pulmonary tuberculosis also had dilated pupils and watery eyes. During the Victorian era, English women with large pupils were considered very beautiful. To achieve this, they used belladonna eye drops.

Belladonna is one of the most poisonous plants in the world. If a person eats a couple of berries or a belladonna leaf, he can die. In small doses, the poison from the plant can cause intestinal irritation, rashes, swelling and even blindness. Victorian women knew about this, but still continued to use products that contained poisonous belladonna.

Queen Victoria used belladonna eye drops to relieve cataracts. They dilated their pupils, so the queen felt that her vision was improving. For this reason, she continued to use them and refused to undergo surgery.

7. Dangerous products for oral hygiene

Victorian beauty experts recommended ingesting a teaspoon of ammonia dissolved in water by mouth for fresh breath and preventing tooth decay (especially for those with acid reflux). The toothpaste for people who lived at that time was replaced by powder made from stale bread or charcoal.

To relieve toothache, people took cocaine-based pills that were sold in every pharmacy. They were also thought to be effective in treating coughs and colds.

8. Chemical method for removing body hair

In the Victorian era, unwanted hair growth on the body was removed different methods - with tweezers, shaving, rubbing the skin with wood ash gruel, and so on.

However, not all methods were safe. In one of the books, women were advised to use bleach for removing body hair (as well as bleaching the shoulders). It was advised to do this at an open window and with great care, since bleach can corrode the skin if left on it for a long time.

9. Shadows with mercury and lead

Victorian women tried not to paint their eyes so as not to look like fallen women and look natural. They paid the most attention to complexion and eyebrows. However, to highlight their eyes, they applied homemade creams to their eyelids, such as cold cream and ground cochineal (insects).

The eyeshadow that was sold in stores at the time was called "eye paint." They were mainly used to paint prostitutes or daring Victorian ladies on special days. These eyeshadows typically included hazardous chemicals including lead, mercury sulfide, antimony, cinnabar, and vermilion. They poisoned the body, and mercury sometimes caused insanity.

10. Taking baths with arsenic

When eight-year-old boys from aristocratic families went to live in schools, what were their sisters doing at that time?
They learned to count and write first with nannies, and then with governesses. For several hours a day, yawning and bored, looking longingly out the window, they spent in the room set aside for their studies, thinking about what a wonderful weather for a ride on horseback. In the room there was a table or a desk for the student and the governess, a bookcase with books, sometimes a black board. The entrance to the study room was often directly from the nursery.

“My governess, her name was Miss Blackburn, was very pretty, but terribly strict! Extremely strict! I was afraid of her like fire! In the summer my lessons started at six in the morning, and in the winter at seven, and if I came later, I paid a penny for every five minutes I was late. Breakfast was at eight in the morning, always the same, a bowl of milk and bread and nothing else until I was a teenager. I still hate neither one nor the other, We did not study only half a day on Sunday and the whole day on the name day. The classroom had a pantry where books for study were kept. Miss Blackburn put a piece of bread there for her lunch on a plate. Every time I could not remember something, or disobeyed, or objected to something, she locked me in this closet, where I sat in the dark and trembled with fear. I was especially afraid that the mouse would come running there to eat Miss Blackburn's bread. I remained in my captivity until, suppressing sobs, I could say calmly that now I am good. Miss Blackburn made me memorize pages of a story or long poems, and if I was even a word wrong, she made me learn twice as much! "

If nannies were always adored, then poor governesses were rarely loved. Perhaps because the nannies chose their fate voluntarily and stayed with their family until the end of their days, and always became governesses by the will of circumstances. Most often, educated girls from the middle class, daughters of penniless professors and clerks, were forced to work in this profession in order to help a bankrupt family and earn a dowry. Sometimes the daughters of aristocrats who had lost their fortune were forced to become governesses. For such girls, humiliation from their position was an obstacle to ensuring that they could get at least some pleasure from their work. They were very lonely, and the servants tried their best to express their contempt to them. The more noble the family of the poor governess was, the worse they treated her.

The servants believed that if a woman was forced to work, then she was equated in her position with them, and did not want to look after her, diligently demonstrating her disdain. If the poor thing got a job in a family in which there were no aristocratic roots, then the owners, suspecting that she looked down on them and despised them for lack of proper manners, disliked her and tolerated her only so that their daughters learned to behave in society.

Apart from teaching their daughters languages, piano playing, and watercolors, parents cared little for deep knowledge. The girls read a lot, but they chose not moralizing books, but romance novels, which they slowly pulled from their home library. They went down to the common dining room only for lunch, where they sat at a separate table with their governess. At five o'clock tea and pastries were carried upstairs to the study room. After that, the children did not receive any food until the next morning.

“We were allowed to spread butter or jam on bread, but never both, and only eat one portion of cheesecakes or muffins, which we washed down big amount fresh milk. When we turned fifteen or sixteen, we did not have enough of this amount of food and we constantly went to bed hungry. After we heard that the governess went into her room, carrying a tray with a large portion of dinner, we slowly went barefoot down the back stairs to the kitchen, knowing that there was no one there at that time, as loud conversation and laughter could be heard from the room. where the servants ate. We stealthily recruited what we could and happy returning to the bedrooms. "

Often, French and German women were invited to teach their daughters French and German as governesses. “Once we were walking down the street with Mademoiselle and met my mother's friends. On the same day, they wrote her a letter, saying that my prospects for marriage were in jeopardy because the ignorant governess was wearing brown boots, not black ones. "Darling," they wrote, "in brown shoes cocottes walk. What can they think of sweet Betty, if she is looked after by such a mentor! ""

Lady Hartwrich (Betty) was the younger sister of Lady Twendolen, who married Jack Churchill. When she came of age, then
was invited to hunt quite far from home. To get to the place, she had to use the railroad. Early in the morning she was escorted to the station by a groom who was obliged to meet her here that evening. Further, with the luggage that made up all the equipment for hunting, she rode in a stall car with a horse. It was considered quite normal and acceptable for a young girl to travel, sitting on the straw, with her horse, since it was believed that he would be her protection and would kick anyone who entered the stall car. However, if she was unaccompanied in a passenger carriage with the entire public, among which there could be men, society would condemn such a girl.

In carriages drawn by little ponies, the girls could alone go outside the estate, visiting their girlfriends. Sometimes the path went through the forest and fields. Absolute freedom that young ladies enjoyed in the estates, disappeared instantly, as soon as they got into the city. Conventions awaited them here at every step. "I was allowed to ride alone in the dark through the woods and fields, but if I wanted to walk through a park in central London in the morning, full of walking people to meet my friend, I would be assigned a maid."

For three months, while parents and eldest daughters moved around in society, the younger ones on their top floor, together with the governess, repeated their lessons.

One of the famous and very dear governesses, Miss Wolfe, opened classes for girls in 1900 that worked until World War II. “I myself attended them when I turned 16, and therefore I know by personal example what the best education was for girls at that time. Miss Wolfe had previously taught the best aristocratic families and eventually inherited enough money to buy a large house on South Adley Street Maiter. In one part of it, she arranged classes for selected girls. She taught the best ladies of our high society, and I can safely say that I myself have benefited a lot from this perfectly organized mess in her educational process. At three o'clock in the morning, girls and women of all ages met at a long table in our cozy study room, the former living room of this elegant 18th century mansion. Miss Wolfe, a small, frail woman with huge glasses that made her look like a dragonfly, explained to us the subject that we were to study that day, then went to the bookcases and took out books for each of us. At the end of the classes, a discussion was arranged, sometimes we wrote essays on topics in history, literature, geography. One of our girls wanted to study Spanish, and Miss Wolfe immediately began to teach her grammar. There seemed to be no subject that she did not know! But her most important talent was that she knew how to kindle in young heads the fire of thirst for knowledge and curiosity for the subjects studied. She taught us to find interesting sides in everything. She had many acquaintances men who sometimes came to our school, and we got a point of view on the subject of the opposite sex. "

In addition to the listed lessons, the girls also studied dance, music, handicrafts and the ability to stay in society. In many schools, as a test before admission, they were given the task of sewing on a button or overcasting a buttonhole. However, a similar picture was observed only in England. Russian and German girls were much more educated (according to Lady Hartvrich) and knew three or four languages \u200b\u200bperfectly, and in France girls were even more refined in demeanor.

How difficult it is now for our free-thinking generation, practically not subject to public opinion, to understand that just a little more than a hundred years ago, this very opinion determined the fate of a person, especially girls. It is also impossible for a generation that grew up outside of class and class boundaries to imagine a world in which insurmountable restrictions and barriers arose at every step.Girls from good families were never allowed to be alone with a man, even for a few minutes in the living room of their own home. The society was convinced that if a man was alone with a girl, he would immediately harass her. These were the conventions of the time. The men were in search of prey and prey, and the girls protected themselves from those who wanted to pick the flower of innocence.

All Victorian mothers were very concerned about the latter circumstance, and in order to prevent rumors about their daughters, which were often disbanded in order to eliminate a happier rival, they did not let go of them and controlled their every step. Girls and young women, moreover, were under constant scrutiny from the servants. The maids woke them up, dressed them, served at the table, the young ladies made their morning visits accompanied by a footman and a groom, they were with mothers and matchmakers at balls or in the theater, and in the evening, when they returned home, sleepy maids undressed them. The poor things were practically not left alone at all. If Miss (an unmarried lady) eluded her maid, matchmaker, sister and acquaintances for only an hour, then dirty assumptions were already made that something might have happened. From that moment on, the contenders for the hand and heart seemed to evaporate.

Beatrice Potter, the beloved English children's writer, recalled in her memoirs how one day she went to the theater with her family. She was 18 years old at the time and had lived in London her entire life. However, she has never been near Buckingham Palace, the Houses of Parliament, the Strand and the Monument - famous places in the city center, which it was impossible not to pass by. “It is amazing to state that this was the first time in my life! - she wrote in her memoirs. "After all, if I could, I would gladly walk here alone, without waiting for someone to accompany me!"

At the same time, Bella Wilfer, from Dickens's book Our Mutual Friend, was traveling alone across the city from Oxford Street to Hollowen Prison (more than three miles), in the author's words, “as if a crow flies by” I didn't think it was strange. She went downtown to look for her father one evening and was only spotted because there were only a few women on the street in the financial district at the time. It's strange, two girls of the same age, and so differently treated the same question: can they go out alone on the street? Of course, Bella Wilfer is a fictional character, and Beatrice Potter really lived, but the fact is that there were different rules for different classes. The poor girls were much freer in their movements due to the fact that there was no one to follow and accompany them wherever they went. And if they worked as a servant or in a factory, then they made their way back and forth alone and no one thought it was indecent. The higher the status of a woman, the more rules and decency she was entangled with.

An unmarried American woman, who came to England with her aunt to visit relatives, had to return home on inheritance matters. The aunt, who feared another long voyage, did not go with her. When, six months later, the girl again appeared in British society, she was received very coldly by all the important ladies on whom public opinion depended. After the girl had traveled such a long journey on her own, they did not consider her virtuous enough for their circle, suggesting that, being unattended, she could do something illegal. The marriage for a young American woman was in jeopardy. Fortunately, having a flexible mind, she did not reproach the ladies for their out-of-date views and prove them wrong, but instead, for several months, she demonstrated exemplary behavior and, having established herself in society from the right side, having also a pleasant appearance, was very successful got married.

After becoming a countess, she quickly silenced all gossipers who still had a desire to discuss her "dark past."

The wife had to obey and obey her husband in everything, just like the children. A man, on the other hand, must be strong, decisive, businesslike and just, since he was responsible for the whole family. Here's an example ideal woman: “There was something inexplicably tender in her image. I will never allow myself to raise my voices or just speak to her loudly and quickly, fearing to scare her and hurt her! Such delicate flower must eat only love! "

Tenderness, silence, ignorance of life were typical features of the ideal bride. If a girl has read a lot and, God forbid, not manuals on etiquette, not religious or classical literature, not biographies of famous artists and musicians or other decent publications, if she has seen Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" or similar scientific works, then it looked as bad in the eyes of society as if she had been seen reading a French novel. After all, a smart wife, having read such "nasty", would begin to express ideas to her husband, and he would not only feel more stupid than her, but he would not have been able to keep her in check. This is how an unmarried girl, Molly Hughes, from a poor family, who herself had to earn a living, writes about it. After being a hat milliner and losing her business, she went to Cornwall to see her cousin, who was afraid of her, considering her modern. "After a while, my cousin gave me a compliment:" They told us that you are smart. You are not at all! "

In the language of the 19th century, this meant that, it turns out, you are a worthy girl with whom I would be happy to make friends. Moreover, it was expressed by a girl from the hinterland to a girl who came from the capital - a hotbed of vice. These words of her cousin gave Molly an idea of \u200b\u200bhow she should behave: “I must hide the fact that I was educated and worked myself, and even more hide my interest in books, paintings and politics. Soon, with all my heart, I gave myself up to gossip about love affairs and "to what extent some girls can go" - a favorite topic of the local community. At the same time, I found it quite convenient for myself to seem somewhat strange. This was not considered a vice or a defect. Knowledge is what I had to hide from everyone! "

The already mentioned girl from America, Sarah Duncan, remarked bitterly: “In England, an unmarried girl of my age should not talk much ... It was rather difficult for me to accept, but later I understood what was the matter. You need to keep your opinions to yourself. '' I began to speak rarely, a little and found that the best topic that suits everyone is the zoo. Nobody will judge me if I talk about animals. "

Opera is also a great topic of conversation. The opera "Hilbert and Sillivan" was considered very popular at this time. In Gissing's novel Women in Confusion, the hero visited the friend of an emancipated woman:

“Is this new opera Schlberg and Sillivan really that good? He asked her.
- Very! Haven't you really seen it yet?
- Not! I really am ashamed to admit it!
- Go tonight. If, of course, you get free space. Which part of the theater do you prefer?
“I'm a poor man, as you know. I must be satisfied with a cheap place. "
A few more questions and answers - a typical mixture of banality and tense audacity, and the hero, peering into the face of the interlocutor, could not help smiling. “Isn't it true, our conversation would have been approved over traditional tea at five o'clock. I heard exactly the same dialogue yesterday in the living room! "

Such communication with conversations about anything led to despair, but most were quite happy.

Until the age of 17-18, girls were considered invisible. They attended parties, but had no right to say a word until someone spoke to them. Even then, their answers should be very short. In them, as it were, the understanding was laid that the girl was noticed only out of politeness. Parents continued to dress their daughters in similar simple dressesso that they do not attract the attention of suitors intended for their older sisters. No one dared to jump over their turn, as happened to Eliza Bennett's younger sister in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. When at last their hour came, all attention was drawn at once to the blossoming flower, the parents dressed the girl in all the best so that she would take her rightful place among the first brides of the country and could attract the attention of profitable grooms.

Every girl, stepping into the world, experienced a terrible excitement! After all, from that moment on, it became noticeable. She was no longer
a child who, after patting the head, was sent out of the hall where the adults were. In theory, she was prepared for this, but in practice she did not have the slightest experience of how to behave in such a situation. Indeed, at this time, the idea of \u200b\u200bevenings for young people did not exist at all, as well as entertainment for children. Balls and receptions were given for the nobility, for royalty, for the guests of their parents, and the young were only allowed to be present at these events.

Many girls sought to get married only because they considered the worst of evils to be their own mother, who said that it was ugly to sit cross-legged. They really had no idea about life, and this was considered their great advantage. Expertise was seen as bad manners and almost equated with bad reputation. No man would want to marry a girl with a bold, as it was believed, daring outlook on life. Innocence and modesty were traits that were highly prized in young maidens by the Victorians. Even the colors of their dresses when they went to the ball were surprisingly monotonous - different shades of white (a symbol of innocence). Before marriage, they did not wear jewelry and could not wear bright dresses.

What a contrast to the spectacular ladies dressed in the finest outfits, traveling in the best carriages, cheerfully and uninhibitedly receiving guests in richly furnished houses. When mothers went out into the street with their daughters, then, in order to avoid explanation, who these beautiful ladies, made the girls turn away. The young lady was not supposed to know anything about this "secret" side of life. It was all the more a blow for her when, after marriage, she discovered that she was not interested in her husband and he prefers to spend time in the company of such cocottes. Here is how the journalist "Dale and Telegraph" describes them:

“I watched the sylphs as they flew or swam in their adorable outing suits and intoxicatingly beautiful hats, some in beaver hunting with flying veils, others in flirty cavalier with green feathers. And while this magnificent cavalcade passed by, the mischievous wind slightly lifted their skirts, exposing small, leg-fitting boots, with military heels, or tight riding trousers. "

How much excitement at the sight of dressed legs, much more than now at the sight of those naked!

Not only the whole system of life was built in such a way as to observe morality, but clothing was an inevitable obstacle to vice, because the girl was wearing up to fifteen layers of undershirts, skirts, bodices and corsets, which she could not get rid of without the help of the maid. Even assuming that her boyfriend was sophisticated in lingerie and could help her, most of the date would have gone into getting rid of the clothes and then pulling them on again. At the same time, the experienced eye of a maid would instantly see a problem in petticoats and shirts, and the secret would still be revealed.

Months, if not years, passed in Victorian time between the inception of sympathy for each other, which began with twitching of eyelashes, timid glances that lingered a little longer on the subject of interest, sighs, a slight blush, rapid heartbeat, excitement in the chest, and a decisive explanation. From that moment on, everything depended on whether the girl's parents liked the applicant for the hand and heart. If not, then they tried to find another candidate who met the main criteria of that time: title, respectability (or public opinion) and money. Having interested the future chosen one of her daughter, who could be several times older than her and cause disgust, the parents reassured her that they would endure and fall in love. In such a situation, the opportunity to quickly become a widow attracted, especially if the spouse left a will in her favor.

If a girl did not marry and lived with her parents, then most often she was a prisoner in own home, where she continued to be treated as a minor, who did not have her own opinion and desires. After the death of his father and mother, the inheritance was most often left to the elder brother, and she, having no means of subsistence, moved to live with his family, where she was always put in last place. Servants carried her around the table, her brother's wife ordered her, and again she found herself in complete dependence. If there were no brothers, then the girl, after her parents left this world, moved to her sister's family, because it was believed that an unmarried girl, even if she is an adult, is not able to take care of herself. It was even worse there, since in this case her fate was decided by her brother-in-law, that is, a stranger. When she got married, a woman ceased to be the mistress of her own money, which was given for her as a dowry. The husband could drink them, skip, lose, or give them to his mistress, and his wife could not even reproach him, as this would be condemned in society. Of course, she could be lucky and her beloved husband could be successful in business and reckon with her opinion, then life really passed in happiness and peace. But if he turned out to be a tyrant and tyrant, then all that remained was to wait for his death and be afraid at the same time to be left without money and a roof over his head.

To get the right groom, no means were hesitated. Here is a scene from a popular play that Lord Ernest himself wrote and often staged in his home theater:

“A rich house on the estate, where Hilda is sitting in her bedroom in front of a mirror, combing her hair after an event that happened during a game of hide and seek. Her mother Lady Dragon enters.
Lady Dragoy. Well, you've done some work, dear!
Hilda. What are you doing, Mom?
Lady Dragon (mockingly). What are you doing! Sit all night with a man in a closet and not force him to propose!
Hilda, Not all night at all, but just a little before dinner.
Lady Dragon. It is the same!
Hilda. What could I have done, Mom?
Lady Dragon. Don't pretend to be a fool! A thousand things you could do! Did he kiss you?
Hilda. Yes mom!
Lady Dragon. And you just sat there like an idiot and let yourself be kissed for an hour?
HILDA (sobbing). Well, you said yourself that I shouldn't oppose Lord Party. And if he wants to kiss me, then I must allow.
Lady Dragon. You really are a real fool! Why didn't you scream when the prince found you two in his wardrobe?
Hilda. Why did I have to scream?
Lady Dragon. You have no brains at all! Don't you know that as soon as you heard the sound of footsteps, you should have shouted: "Help! Help! Get your hands off me, sir!" Or something like that. Then he would have been forced to marry you!
Hilda. Mom, but you never told me about it!
Lady Dragon. God! Well, it's so natural! You should have figured it out yourself! As I will now explain to my father ... Well, good. It's no use talking to a brainless chicken!
The maid enters with a note on a tray.
Maid. My lady, a letter to Miss Hilda!
Hilda (after reading the note). Mum! This is Lord Party! He asks me to marry him!
Lady Dragoy (kissing daughter). My dear, dear girl! You have no idea how happy I am! I always said that you are smart! "

The above passage shows another contradiction of its time. Lady Dragon did not see anything reprehensible in the fact that her daughter, contrary to all the Standards of behavior, is alone with a man for an hour! And even in the closet! And all this because they played a very common home game of "hide and seek", where the rules not only allowed, but ordered to scatter in pairs, as girls could be frightened by dark rooms lit only by oil lamps and candles. At the same time, it was allowed to hide anywhere, even in the owner's closet, as was the case in the above case.

With the beginning of the season, there was a revival in the world, and if the girl did not find a husband for herself last year, her excited mother could change the matchmaker and start hunting for suitors again. At the same time, the age of the matchmaker did not matter. Sometimes she was even younger and more playful than the treasure she offered and at the same time carefully guarded. Retire to winter Garden was allowed only for the purpose of offering a hand and heart.

If a girl disappeared for 10 minutes during the dance, then in the eyes of society she was already noticeably losing her value, so the matchmaker constantly turned her head in all directions during the ball so that her ward remained in sight. During the dance, girls sat on a well-lit sofa or in a row of chairs, and young people approached them to enroll in a ballroom book for a certain dance number.

Two dances in a row with the same gentleman attracted everyone's attention, and the matchmakers began to whisper about the engagement. Three in a row were allowed only to Prince Albert and Queen Victoria.

And of course it was completely unacceptable for ladies to make visits to a gentleman, except for very important matters. Every now and then in the English literature of that time examples are given: “She knocked nervously and immediately regretted it and looked around, fearing to see suspicion or ridicule from the respectable matrons passing by. She had doubts, because a lonely girl should not visit a lonely man. She pulled herself together, straightened up and knocked again more confidently. The gentleman was her manager, and she really needed to speak with him urgently. "

However, all conventions ended where poverty reigned. What kind of supervision could have been for girls forced to earn a piece of bread. Did anyone think that they walked the dark streets alone, looking for a drunken father, and at the service also no one cared that the maid was left alone in the room with the owner. Moral norms for the lower class they were completely different, although here the main thing was that the girl took care of herself and did not cross the last line.

Those born in poor families worked to the point of exhaustion and could not resist when, for example, the owner of the store in which they served, persuaded them to cohabit. They could not refuse, even knowing what fate befell many others who had previously worked in the same place. The addiction was terrible. Refusing, the girl lost her place and was doomed to spend long weeks, or even months in search of a new one. And if the last money was paid for housing, it means that she had nothing to eat, she could have fainted at any moment, but was in a hurry to find a job, otherwise she could lose her roof over her head.

And imagine if at the same time she had to feed the elderly parents and little sisters! She had no choice but to sacrifice herself for them! For many poor girls, this could be a way out of poverty, if not for children born out of wedlock, who changed everything in their situation. At the slightest hint of pregnancy, the lover left them, sometimes without any means of subsistence. Even if he helped for a while, the money ran out very quickly, and the parents, who had previously encouraged their daughter to feed the whole family with the help of the means earned in this way, now, without receiving more money, dishonored her every day and showered her with curses. All the gifts that she had received before from a rich lover were being eaten up. Shame and humiliation awaited her at every step. It was impossible for a pregnant woman to get a job - it meant that she was settling with an extra mouth on the neck of an already poor family, and after the birth of a child, there were constant worries about who would look after him while she was at work.

And all the same, even knowing all the circumstances, before the temptation to hide from oppressive poverty at least for a while, to open the curtain into a completely different joyful, elegant world, walk down the street in stunning beauty and high cost clothes and look down on people from whom there are so many years depended on work, and therefore life, it was almost impossible to resist! In a way, this was their chance, which they would regret anyway, accepting or rejecting it.

The statistics were relentless. For every ex-store saleswoman who proudly nursed an apartment her lover rented for her in expensive outfits, there were hundreds whose lives were ruined for the same reason. A man could lie about his status, or intimidate, or bribe, or take by force, you never know the ways in which you can break resistance. But, having achieved his goal, he most often remained indifferent to what would happen to the poor girl, who would definitely get bored with him. Will the poor girl be able to arrange her life? How will she recover from the shame that has befallen her? Will she die of grief and humiliation, or will she be able to survive? What will happen to their common child? The former lover, the culprit of her shame, now avoided the unfortunate woman and, as if afraid of getting dirty, turned away, making it clear that there could be nothing in common between him and this dirty girl. She can also be a thief! Cabman, touch! "

The situation of the poor illegitimate child was even worse. Even if the father provided material assistance until he came of age, then every minute of his life he felt that they did not want him to be born and that he was not like others. Still not understanding the word illegitimate, he already knew that it had a shameful meaning, and all his life he could not wash off the dirt.

Mr. William Whiteley coaxed all his saleswomen into cohabitation and abandoned them when they became pregnant. When one of his illegitimate sons grew up, feeling a burning hatred for his father, one day he went to the store and shot him. In 1886 Lord Czrlingford wrote in his journal after walking down one of the main streets of Mayfair after supper: "It is strange to walk through the rows of women offering their bodies in silence to the passing men." This was the result of almost all the poor girls who, using the terminology of the 19th century, "plunged themselves into the abyss of debauchery." The cruel time did not forgive those who neglected public opinion. The Victorian world was divided into only two colors: white and black! Either absurdly virtuous or depraved! Moreover, it was possible to be ranked in the last category, as we saw above, just because of the wrong color of shoes, because of flirting in front of everyone with a gentleman during a dance, but you never know why young girls were awarded a stigma from old virgins that, pursing their lips in a thin thread, watched the youth at the balls.

Text by Tatiana Dittrich (from Everyday Life in Victorian England).

Reproductions paintings by James Tissot.

New avatars "English ladies" (the size 150 * 150 px, which is ideal for LiRu),

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Dear friends! As a sign that we are not dead, from this day on, we will regale you with huge doses of texts about our beautiful Old New England, in which we are all going to live.

The GM has an idea that the Victorian society permeated with neuroses (the era ended with Her Majesty Victoria in 1901) in 1909 is still alive in the minds and souls of the British, but this harsh mentality is gradually being replaced by its lighter version - Edwardianism , more refined, refined, frivolous, inclined towards luxury and adventures. The change of milestones is slow, but the world (and with it the consciousness of people) is changing.

Let's take a look today where we all lived before 1901 and turn to history and Victorian morality. This will be our foundation, the bottom from which we will start from (and for some - the platform on which they will firmly and confidently stand).

Here is a young Queen Victoria for your seed, who above all valued morality, ethics and family values.
A living person did not fit very well into the Victorian system of values, where each subject was supposed to have a specific set of required qualities. Therefore, hypocrisy was considered not only permissible, but also obligatory. Saying what you don’t think, smiling, if you want to sob, wasting pleasantries to people who shake you — this is what is required of a well-mannered person. People should be comfortable and comfortable in your company, and what you feel yourself is your own business. Take everything away, lock it, and preferably swallow the key. Only with the closest people can you sometimes afford to move the iron mask that hides your true face by a millimeter. In return, society readily promises not to try to look inside you.

What the Victorians did not tolerate was nudity in any form, both mental and physical. Moreover, this applied not only to people, but in general to any phenomena. If you have a toothpick, there should be a case for it. The toothpick case should be kept in a lockable box. The box should be hidden in a locked chest of drawers. To prevent the chest of drawers from looking too naked, you need to cover every free centimeter of it with carved curls and cover it with an embroidered bedspread, which, in order to avoid excessive openness, should be made with figurines, wax flowers and other nonsense, which it is advisable to cover with glass caps. The walls were hung with decorative plates, engravings and paintings from top to bottom. In those places where the wallpaper still managed to immodestly crawl out into the light of God, it was clear that they were decently dotted with small bouquets, birds or coats of arms. There are carpets on the floors, smaller rugs on the carpets, and the furniture is covered with bedspreads and studded with embroidered pillows.

But the nakedness of a person, of course, had to be hidden especially diligently, especially a woman's. The Victorians viewed women as some kind of centaurs who had the upper half of the body (undoubtedly the creation of God), but there were doubts about the lower half. The taboo extended to everything related to the legs. The word itself was forbidden: they were supposed to be called "limbs", "members" and even "pedestal." Most of the words for pants were off limits in good society. The case ended with the fact that in stores they began to be quite officially titled "unnamed" and "inexpressible".

Men's trousers were sewn in such a way as to hide the anatomical excesses of the stronger sex from the views as much as possible: pads made of dense fabric along the front of the trousers and very tight underwear were used.

As for the ladies' pedestal, this was generally an extremely forbidden territory, the very outlines of which had to be destroyed. Huge hoops were put on under skirts - crinolines, so that a lady's skirt easily took 10-11 meters of matter. Then bustles appeared - lush pads on the buttocks, designed to completely hide the presence of this part of the female body, so the modest Victorian ladies were forced to walk, dragging behind them cloth priests with bows, protruding half a meter back.

Victorian family
“At the head of the average Victorian family is a patriarch who later married a virgin bride. He has rare and restrained sexual relations with his wife, who, exhausted by constant childbirth and the hardships of marriage with such a difficult man, spends most of her time lying on the couch. Before breakfast, he arranges long family prayers, to strengthen discipline, he flogs his sons with rods, keeps his daughters as untrained and ignorant as possible, drives out pregnant maids without payment or recommendations, secretly keeps his mistress in some quiet institution, and probably visits minors. prostitutes. A woman is absorbed in caring for the household and children, and when her husband expects her to fulfill marital duties, "lies on his back, closes his eyes and thinks about England" - after all, nothing more is required of her, for "the ladies do not move."

Sex relations
Victorianism achieved the least success in the ethics of gender relations and family life, as a result of which about 40% of English women of the so-called "middle class" of this era remained unmarried throughout their lives. The reason for this was a rigid system of moral conventions that led to a dead end for many who wanted to arrange a personal life.

The notion of misalliance in Victorian England was carried to the point of absurdity. For example, at first glance, nothing prevents the descendants of two equal noble families from being united by marriage. However, the conflict that arose between the ancestors of these surnames in the 15th century erected a wall of alienation: the non-gentlemanly act of Gilbert's great-grandfather made in the eyes of society non-gentlemen of all subsequent, innocent Gilberts.

Open displays of sympathy between a man and a woman, even in a harmless form, without intimacy, were strictly prohibited. The word "love" was completely taboo. The limit of frankness in the explanation was the password "Can I hope?" and the tip "I have to think." Courtship was to have a public character, to consist of ritual conversations, symbolic gestures and signs. The most common sign of disposition, intended especially for prying eyes, was the permission for the young man to carry the girl's prayer book upon his return from Sunday service. A girl who, at least for a minute, remained in the room alone with a man who had no officially announced intentions towards her, was considered compromised. An elderly widower and his adult unmarried daughter could not live under the same roof - they had to either disperse or hire a companion to the house, for a highly moral society was always ready to suspect father and daughter of unnatural relationships.

Led by the bourgeois queen, the British were filled with what the Soviet textbooks liked to call "bourgeois morality." Glitter, splendor, luxury were now considered not quite decent things, fraught with depravity. The royal court, which for so many years was the focus of freedom of morals, mind-blowing toilets and shining jewelry, turned into the abode of a person in a black dress and a widow's cap. The sense of style caused the aristocracy to slow down as well, and it is still widely believed that no one dresses as badly as the upper English nobility. Economy has been raised to the rank of virtue. Even in the houses of lords from now on, for example, candle stubs were never thrown away; they had to be collected, and then sold to candle shops for overflow.

Modesty, hard work and impeccable morality were prescribed for absolutely all classes. However, it was quite enough to seem the owner of these qualities: they did not try to change the nature of man. You can feel whatever you want, but it was highly discouraged to give out your feelings or commit inappropriate acts, unless, of course, you appreciated your place in society. And society was arranged in such a way that almost every inhabitant of Albion did not even try to jump one step higher. God grant that you have enough strength to stay on the one you are occupying now.

Inadequacy to their position was punished by the Victorians mercilessly. If the girl's name is Abigail, she will not be taken as a maid in a decent house, since the maid must have a simple name, such as Ann or Mary. Lackey must be tall and be able to move dexterously. A butler with an illegible pronunciation or an overly direct gaze will end his days in a ditch. The girl who sits like this will never get married.

Do not wrinkle your forehead, do not spread your elbows, do not sway when walking, otherwise everyone will decide that you are a brick factory worker or a sailor: they are just supposed to walk that way. If you drink food with your mouth full, you will no longer be invited to dinner. When talking with an elderly lady, you need to bow your head slightly. A person who signs his business cards so clumsily cannot be accepted in good society.

Everything was subject to the most severe regulation: movements, gestures, timbre of voice, gloves, topics for conversation. Any detail of your appearance and manner should have eloquently yelled about what you are, or rather, trying to represent. A clerk who looks like a shopkeeper is ridiculous; the governess dressed up as a duchess is outrageous; a cavalry colonel must behave differently from a country priest, and a man's hat says more about him than he himself could tell about himself.

In general, there are few societies in the world in which the relationship between the sexes would please the outsider's eye with reasonable harmony. But the sexual segregation of Victorians is unmatched in many ways. The word "hypocrisy" here begins to play with new bright colors. Things were easier for the lower classes, but starting with the townspeople middle hand the rules of the game became extremely complicated. Both sexes got it in full.

Lady

By law, a woman was not considered separately from her husband; her entire fortune was considered his property from the moment of marriage. Quite often a woman also could not be the heiress of her husband, if his estate was a prerogative.
Women of the middle class and above could only work as governesses or companions, any other profession simply did not exist for them. The woman also could not make financial decisions without the consent of her husband. At the same time, divorce was extremely rare and usually led to the expulsion of a wife and often a husband from decent society. From birth, the girl was taught to always and in everything obey men, obey them and forgive any antics: drunkenness, mistresses, family ruin - whatever.

The ideal Victorian wife never reprimanded her husband. Her task was to please her husband, to praise his dignity and to rely entirely on him in any matter. Daughters, however, the Victorians provided considerable freedom in the choice of spouses. Unlike, for example, the French or Russian nobles, where children's marriages were decided mainly by the parents, the young Victorian woman had to make a choice on her own and with wide eyes: her parents could not force her to marry anyone. True, they could prevent her from marrying an unwanted groom until the age of 24, but if a young couple fled to Scotland, where it was allowed to get married without parental approval, then Maman and Dad could do nothing.

But usually young ladies were already sufficiently trained to keep their desires in check and obey their elders. They were taught to appear weak, gentle and naive - it was believed that only such a fragile flower could make a man want to take care of him. Before leaving for balls and dinners, young ladies were fed for slaughter, so that the girl did not have a desire to demonstrate a good appetite in front of strangers: an unmarried girl was supposed to peck food like a bird, demonstrating her unearthly airiness.

A woman was not supposed to be too educated (in any case, to show it), to have her own views and in general to show excessive awareness in any matter, from religion to politics. At the same time, the education of Victorian girls was very serious. If the parents calmly sent the boys to schools and boarding schools, then the daughters should have governesses, coming teachers and study under the serious supervision of their parents, although there were also girls' boarding schools. The girls, however, were rarely taught Latin and Greek, except that they themselves expressed a desire to comprehend them, but otherwise they learned the same as the boys. They were also specially taught painting (at least watercolors), music and several foreign languages... A girl from a good family had to know French, preferably Italian, and usually German was still the third.

So the Victorian woman had to know a lot, but it was a very important skill to hide this knowledge in every possible way. Having got a husband, a Victorian woman often gave birth to 10-20 children. Contraceptives and miscarriages, so well known to her great-grandmothers, were considered so horribly obscene in the Victorian era that she simply had no one to discuss their use with.

Nevertheless, the development of hygiene and medicine in England at that time kept alive a record 70% of newborns for mankind at that time. So the British Empire did not know the need for brave soldiers throughout the 19th century. "

Gentlemen
Getting on the neck of such a submissive creature as a Victorian wife, the gentleman puffed out to the fullest. From childhood, he was raised in the belief that girls are fragile and delicate creatures, which must be treated with care, like ice roses. The father was fully responsible for the maintenance of his wife and children. Count on what's in hard time his wife deigns to provide him with real help, he could not. Oh no, she herself would never dare to complain that she was missing something! But Victorian society was vigilant that husbands dutifully pulled the strap.

A husband who didn’t give his wife a shawl, didn’t move a chair, didn’t take her to the water when she coughed so terribly all September, a husband who forced his poor wife to leave for the second year in a row in the same evening dress - such a husband could give up on his future: an advantageous place will float away from him, the necessary acquaintance will not take place, in the club they will communicate with him with icy politeness, and his own mother and sisters will write him indignant letters in bags every day.

The Victorian considered it her duty to be sick all the time: good health was somehow not to the face of a true lady. And the fact that a huge number of these martyrs, eternally groaning on the couches, survived to the first or even to the second world war, having outlived their husbands by half a century, cannot but amaze. In addition to his wife, the man also bore full responsibility for unmarried daughters, unmarried sisters and aunts, and widows of great-uncles.

In addition, this rate has changed over time in the direction of softening. The Juvenile Guardianship Act in 1839 gave unblemished mothers access to their children in the event of a departure or divorce, and the Divorce Act of 1857 provided women with (rather limited) opportunities for divorce. But while the husband had to prove only his wife's adultery, the woman had to prove that her husband had committed not just adultery, but also incest, bigamy, cruelty, or desertion from the family.

In 1873, the Juvenile Guardianship Act expanded access to children for all women in the event of separation or divorce. In 1878, after an amendment to the Divorce Act, women were able to seek divorce due to abuse and claim custody of their children. In 1882, the Married Women's Property Act guaranteed a woman the right to dispose of the property she brought into marriage. Two years later, an amendment to this law made the wife not a "movable property" of her husband, but an independent and separate person. Through the Juvenile Guardianship Act of 1886, women could be made the sole guardian of their children if their husband died.

In the 1880s, several ladies' institutes, art studios, a women's fencing club were opened in London, and in the year of Dr. Watson's marriage, even a special women's restaurant where a woman could safely come unaccompanied by a man. Among the women of the middle class there were quite a few teachers, women doctors and women travelers appeared.

The next issue of our Old New England will explore how Victorian society differs from the Edwardian era. God save the king!
Author emeraldairtone , for which many thanks to her.

There are a lot of pictures and photos of vintage dresses from the Victorian and Art Nouveau era.

Quotes from Tatiana Dittrich's book "Everyday Life in Victorian England"

The Victorian world was divided into only two colors: white and black! Either absurdly virtuous or depraved! Moreover, it was possible to be ranked in the last category only because of the wrong color of shoes, because of flirting in front of everyone with a gentleman during a dance, but you never know why young girls were awarded a stigma from old maidens that, pressing their lips in a thin thread, watched the youth at the balls.

Girls and young women, moreover, were under constant scrutiny from the servants. The maids woke them up, dressed them, served at the table, the young ladies made their morning visits accompanied by a footman and a groom, they were with mothers and matchmakers at balls or in the theater, and in the evening, when they returned home, sleepy maids undressed them. The poor things were practically not left alone at all. If Miss (an unmarried lady) eluded her maid, matchmaker, sister and acquaintances for only an hour, then dirty assumptions were already made that something might have happened. From that moment on, the contenders for the hand and heart seemed to evaporate.

Girls from good families were never allowed to be alone with a man, even for a few minutes in the living room of their own home. The society was convinced that if a man was alone with a girl, he would immediately harass her. These were the conventions of the time. The men were in search of prey and prey, and the girls protected themselves from those who wanted to pick the flower of innocence.

Courtship was to have a public character, to consist of ritual conversations, symbolic gestures and signs. The most widespread sign of disposition, intended especially for prying eyes, was the permission for a young man to carry a prayer book belonging to a girl upon his return from a Sunday service.

However, all conventions ended where poverty reigned. Girls born in poor families worked to the point of exhaustion and could not resist when, for example, the owner of the store in which they served, persuaded them to cohabit. And imagine if at the same time she had to feed the elderly parents and little sisters! She had no choice but to sacrifice herself for them! For many poor girls, this could be a way out of poverty, if not for children born out of wedlock, who changed everything in their situation. At the slightest hint of pregnancy, the lover left them, sometimes without any means of subsistence

At the feast, the custom of the so-called segregation of sexes was observed: at the end of the meal, the women got up and left, the men remained to smoke a cigar, have a glass of port, and talk about abstract problems and high matters ..

The statistics were relentless. For every ex-store saleswoman who proudly nursed an apartment her lover rented for her in expensive outfits, there were hundreds whose lives were ruined for the same reason. A man could lie about his status, or intimidate, or bribe, or take by force, you never know the ways in which you can break resistance. But, having achieved his goal, he most often remained indifferent to what would happen to the poor girl, who would definitely get bored with him.

Open displays of sympathy and affection between a man and a woman, even in a harmless form, without intimacy, were strictly prohibited. The word "love" was completely taboo. The limit of candor in the explanations was the password "Can I hope?" and the tip "I have to think".
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With the beginning of the season, there was a revival in the world, and if the girl did not find a husband for herself last year, her excited mother could change the matchmaker and start hunting for suitors again. At the same time, the age of the matchmaker did not matter. Sometimes she was even younger and more playful than the treasure she offered and at the same time carefully guarded. It was only allowed to leave for the winter garden with the intention of offering a hand and heart ..

If a girl disappeared for 10 minutes during the dance, then in the eyes of society she was already noticeably losing her value, so the matchmaker constantly turned her head in all directions during the ball so that her ward remained in sight. During the dance, the girls sat on a well-lit sofa or in a row of chairs, and young people approached them to sign up in a ballroom book for a certain dance number.

Two dances in a row with the same gentleman attracted everyone's attention, and the matchmakers began to whisper about the engagement. Only Prince Albert and Queen Victoria were allowed three in a row.

And of course it was completely unacceptable for ladies to make visits to a gentleman, except for very important matters. Every now and then in the English literature of that time examples are given: “She knocked nervously and immediately regretted it and looked around, fearing to see suspicion or ridicule from the respectable matrons passing by. She had doubts, because a lonely girl should not visit a lonely man. She pulled herself together, straightened up and knocked again more confidently. The gentleman was her manager, and she really needed to speak with him urgently. "

Months, if not years, passed in Victorian time between the inception of sympathy for each other, which began with twitching of eyelashes, timid glances that lingered a little longer on the subject of interest, sighs, a slight blush, rapid heartbeat, excitement in the chest, and a decisive explanation. From that moment on, everything depended on whether the girl's parents liked the applicant for the hand and heart. If not, then they tried to find another candidate who met the main criteria of that time: title, respectability (or public opinion) and money. Having interested the future chosen one of her daughter, who could be several times older than her and cause disgust, the parents reassured her that they would endure and fall in love. In such a situation, the opportunity to quickly become a widow attracted, especially if the spouse left a will in her favor.

Months, if not years, passed in Victorian time between the inception of sympathy for each other, which began with twitching of eyelashes, timid glances that lingered a little longer on the subject of interest, sighs, a slight blush, rapid heartbeat, excitement in the chest, and a decisive explanation. From that moment on, everything depended on whether the girl's parents liked the applicant for the hand and heart. If not, then they tried to find another candidate who met the main criteria of that time: title, respectability (or public opinion) and money. Having interested the future chosen one of her daughter, who could be several times older than her and cause disgust, the parents reassured her that they would endure and fall in love. In such a situation, the opportunity to quickly become a widow attracted, especially if the spouse left a will in her favor.

If a girl did not marry and lived with her parents, then most often she was a prisoner in her own house, where she continued to be treated as a minor, who did not have her own opinion and desires. After the death of his father and mother, the inheritance was most often left to the elder brother, and she, having no means of subsistence, moved to live with his family, where she was always put in last place. Servants carried her around the table, her brother's wife ordered her, and again she found herself in complete dependence. If there were no brothers, then the girl, after her parents left this world, moved to her sister's family, because it was believed that an unmarried girl, even if she is an adult, is not able to take care of herself. It was even worse there, since in this case her fate was decided by her brother-in-law, that is, a stranger. When she got married, a woman ceased to be the mistress of her own money, which was given for her as a dowry. ...

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Times have changed. Looking for Victorian features in modern British life is like asking an Englishman to study life. modern Russia based on the novels of Turgenev and Dostoevsky. But the omen remained that at the wedding there must be something old, new, borrowed and blue ("something old andsomething new, something borrowed and something blue").

This sign began in Victorian times and since then many brides have tried to dress according to tradition. Something old symbolizes the bond with the bride's family, peace and wisdom in marriage. Many brides wear some kind of antique family jewel. Something new symbolizes the good luck and success of the bride's new life. Something borrowed reminds the bride that her friends and family members will always be there, if their help is needed, this thing can be borrowed from a married woman who is happily married with the blessing of a good family life. Something blue it (both pagans and Christians) means love, modesty, loyalty. This is usually a garter.

In the eyes of the law, a woman was just an appendage of her husband. She had no right to conclude a contract on her own behalf, dispose of property or represent herself in court. Because of this, various incidents happened. For example, in 1870, a thief on a London street stole the purse of Millicent Garrett Fawcett, a suffragette and wife of a liberal MP. When the woman was invited to the courtroom, she heard that the thief was accused of "stealing from Millicent Fawcett an 18 pound 6p purse owned by Henry Fawcett." As the victim herself later said, “It seemed to me that I myself was accused of theft.” Legal literacy was low, so many women found out about the infringement of their rights only when they found themselves in court. Before that, they believed that everything was safe in their life and that trouble would never touch them.

Going to court was often an ordeal for women. For offenses of the fairer sex, they were often punished more severely than men. Take, for example, such a crime as bigamy (double marriage), i.e. marriage of a man with two women or a woman with two men. Bigamy was illegal, but it was common. For example, in 1845 the worker Thomas Hall was brought to trial on this charge. His wife fled, and since someone had to look after his young children, Hall remarried. To obtain a divorce, parliamentary approval was required - an expensive procedure for which the defendant would not have had enough money. Taking into account all the extenuating circumstances, the court sentenced him to one day in prison. Women accused of double-maritalism could not get off with such an easy sentence. For example, in 1863, a certain Jesse Cooper was brought to trial. Her first husband left her, and then spread rumors about his death in order to deceive creditors. Believing these reports, Jesse remarried. When her first husband was arrested and charged with embezzlement, he in turn reported his wife to a police officer. Jesse's new husband swore that he considered her a widow at the time of their marriage. Therefore, she had to pay alone - the woman was found guilty and sentenced to several months in prison.

As mentioned above, the powerlessness of a woman was also manifested in the fact that she could not dispose of her own earnings. It seems that everything is not so scary - well, let him put his honestly earned money into the common pot. But the reality was much darker. A woman in the north of England opened a ladies' shop after her husband went bankrupt. For many years, the couple lived comfortably on the income from this institution. But when her husband died, the enterprising milliner was in for a surprise - it turns out that the deceased bequeathed all her property to his illegitimate children! The woman was left to vegetate in poverty. In another case, a woman abandoned by her husband opened her own laundry and kept the money she earned in a bank. Hearing that his wife was doing well, the traitor went to the bank and withdrew every penny from her account. He was in his own right. A spouse could also go to his wife's employer and demand that her salary be paid directly to him. So did the husband of the actress Glover, who left her with young children in 1840, but showed up later, when she was already shining on the wall. At first, the theater director refused to comply with his demand, and the case was taken to court. Expressing his regret, the judge nevertheless ruled in favor of her husband, because the rights of the latter were protected by the law. Turned into a real nightmare family life Nelly Wheaton. After working as a governess for several years, she saved up and bought a cottage, which brought her an annual income of £ 75. In 1814 she married Aaron Stock, owner of a small factory in Wigan. In 1815, Nelly gave birth to a daughter, but in the same year she wrote in her diary “My husband is my horror, my misfortune. I have no doubt that he will become my death as well. " Three years later, Mr. Stock kicked her out into the street when she complained about her inability to manage her income. This scene was followed by a short reconciliation, but soon Mr. Stock succeeded in getting his wife arrested, ostensibly because she dared to raise a hand against him. If not for the help of friends who paid the bail, Nellie would spend her days in a reformatory. In 1820, the woman received a separate residence permit. Now her husband had to pay her 50 pounds a year - less than her income before marriage. In exchange, Nellie had to live no closer than three miles from Wigan and see her daughter only three times a year, because custody of the child again fell to the father.

Despite the flagrant injustice, many defended this state of affairs - “Why complain? Only one husband in a thousand abuses his powers. " But who will guarantee that your husband will not be one of the thousand? Thanks to the efforts of both women and men, in 1870 parliament passed the “Act on the Property of Married Women,” which allowed wives to manage their earnings, as well as property received as inheritance. All other property belonged to her husband. But there was another snag - since the woman seemed to dissolve in her husband, she was not responsible for her debts. In other words, clerks from a fashion store could come to their husband and shake every last penny out of him. But in 1882, another Act of Parliament granted women the right to own all property that they owned before marriage and acquired after marriage. The couple were now responsible for their debts separately. Many husbands found this convenient. After all, the husband's creditors could not demand that the wife sell her property and pay off his debts. Thus, the wife's property acted as insurance against a possible financial ruin.

In addition to financial, there was an even more painful addiction - the lack of rights to children. The child born in wedlock actually belonged to his father (while the mother was responsible for the illegitimate child). In the event of a divorce or separation, the child remained with the father or with a guardian, again appointed by the father. Mothers were allowed rare visits with the child. The separation of mothers and children was accompanied by heartbreaking scenes. Thus, in 1872, the Reverend Henry Newenham petitioned the court for custody of his daughters, who lived with their mother, Lady Helena Newenham, and grandfather, Lord Mountcashl. The oldest girl was already 16, so she could make independent decisions and chose to stay with her mother. But the judge ordered that the youngest, seven-year-old girl, be delivered to her father. When the performer brought her into the courtroom, she screamed and burst out, repeating, “Don't send me away. When will I see my mother again? " The judge assured that mom would see her very often, and when the baby asked "Every day?" He answered "yes." But Lord Mountcashle, who was present at the scene, said, “Knowing what I know, it is impossible. He [ie his son-in-law] is a real devil. " Nevertheless, the girl was handed over to her father, who carried her out of the courtroom. The newspaper article on this case moved many mothers who did not even know about the existence of such laws.

To protect her child, a woman could go through legislative twists and turns, or simply shovel him into an armful and start running. The last way was easier, but more dangerous. In particular, this is what the protagonist of Anna Bronte's novel "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall" (Tenant of Wildfell Hall) did. Anne is the least known of the Bronte triad, but her novel is in no way inferior to the writings of her older sisters. The Stranger and Wildfell Hall's name is Helen Graham. In her youth, she married the charming Arthur Huntington, who turns out to be an alcoholic, helpless and surprisingly immoral person. After the birth of their son Arthur, Mr. Huntington also begins to be jealous of his wife for the child. Over the years, the conflict between spouses only intensifies. But if Helen can still endure her husband's constant love affairs, his attitude towards little Arthur becomes the last straw. When Helen notices that Huntington not only teaches the child to use foul language, but also begins to get him drunk, she decides to run away. Since everything in the novels is a little more prosperous than in life, she manages to escape, but Helen is forced to hide from her husband. Her brother helps her in this. In addition, Helen makes a living by selling paintings. Nevertheless, if not for the help of her brother - and as we will see later, not all brothers were so merciful - she would hardly have fed herself with pictures alone. At the end of the novel, Helen's husband dies after receiving her forgiveness, and the woman herself finds love and family happiness. She deserved it.

Alas, in life everything is not so romantic. A real-life example of the battle for your children is the case of Caroline Norton (1808 - 1877). Beauty Caroline at the age of 18 married the aristocrat George Norton. Her husband not only had an unbearable character, but was also a lawyer, so he was well versed in his rights. For 9 years, he beat her, and in some cases, Carolina ran away to her father's house. Then Norton begged her for forgiveness and she had no choice but to reunite with him. After all, on the map was the well-being of her sons, who, according to the law, had to stay with their father. Her husband constantly did not have enough money, so Mrs. Norton began to earn significant amounts of literary activity - she edited fashion women's magazines, wrote poetry, plays and novels. She spent all her earnings on household needs. At the end of 1835, when the again beaten Caroline was visiting relatives, Norton sent his sons to his cousin and forbade his wife to see them. He then filed a lawsuit against the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, accusing him of having an affair with Caroline. Thus, he hoped to sue at least some money, but due to lack of evidence, the case was closed. The couple left, but George refused to tell his wife where their children were. He evaded English laws that allowed mothers to visit children at least occasionally, leaving for Scotland, where he did not fall under the jurisdiction of the English court. Caroline didn't give up. She launched a campaign to change the child custody rules. Thanks in part to her efforts, parliament passed an act in 1839 allowing women to have custody of children up to seven years of age (women guilty of adultery lost these rights). At least now it is easier for mothers to seek dates with their children. Unfortunately, by the time the law was passed, one of Caroline Norton's sons had already died of tetanus. The boy was ill for a week before George bothered to inform his wife. When she arrived, she found her son in a coffin. Her troubles did not end there. The insidious husband not only appropriated the entire inheritance of Caroline, but also confiscated her royalties from the publishers. Carolina, too, did not remain in debt and took revenge on him like a woman - she got into debt up to her ears, which George was obliged to pay. According to law. One can only imagine with what delight she bought the most expensive outfits!
The 1839 Act allowed women to see their children, but in the will, the husband could appoint a guardian of his choice. In other words, even after the death of the tyrant spouse, the woman could not take the children. How not to fall into despair! But in 1886 the Juvenile Guardianship Act was passed, taking into account the welfare of the child. From now on, the mother had the right of custody of the children, as well as the opportunity to become the only guardian after the death of her husband.
In addition to psychological and economic violence, husbands did not disdain physical violence. Moreover, representatives of different classes beat their wives. Beating his wife was considered an ordinary thing, something like a joke - remember at least Punch and Judy, who chase each other with a stick. By the way, about the sticks. The expression rule of thumb is widely known. For example, in economics it is “a decision-making rule according to which decisions are made based on the best available this moment option. " In other cases, the “rule of thumb” denotes a simplified procedure or making decisions based not on exact but on approximate data. This phrase is believed to date back to the judgment of Sir Francis Buller. In 1782, he decreed that a husband has the right to beat his wife if the stick used to discipline is not thicker than his thumb. Sharp tongues immediately dubbed Buller "Judge Thumb."

In some cases, the wife's relatives tried to protect her from the cruelty of a domestic despot, but material considerations often prevailed over moral ones. In 1850, Lord John Beresford beat his wife Christina so badly that her brothers saw fit to intercede. But upon arriving at the Beresford estate, they learned that his brother, the Marquis of Waterford, had just broken his neck while hunting, so the title goes to John. The brothers became thoughtful. Now the relative of the tyrant looked much more attractive. In the end, they turned 180 degrees and convinced the sister to endure the beatings in exchange for the title of marquise. Christina took out her resentment on the children. Her son, Lord Charles Beresford, swore that on his buttocks he would forever have the imprint of the golden crown that adorned his mother's hairbrush.

A frequent reason for beatings was too close friendship with neighbors. After all, if women get together, then expect trouble. They will probably start washing the bones of their husbands and taking time off from work. Husbands often explained in court that they had to beat their wives to keep them from communicating with other women, in particular their sisters and mothers. But although Victorian laws were not kind to the fair sex, women still received some protection. Thus, in 1854, the Act on the Prevention of Attacks on Women and Children was adopted, thanks to which justices of the peace were able to decide cases involving self-harm themselves. Previously, such cases were sent to a higher court. But remembering that "the darlings scold - only amuse themselves", the judges with a condescending smile listened to the beaten wives. One judge advised the assault victim not to annoy her husband anymore. Another refused to pass judgment until he was sure whether the woman deserved the beatings because she harassed her husband, or whether the fault lies with him alone.

The woman's life was not highly valued. In 1862, a wealthy farmer from Kent, the mayor of Murton, was accused of beating his wife to death when she would not allow him to bring two prostitutes into his house. When sentencing Murton to 3 years in prison, the judge said, "I know this will be a harsh punishment because before you held a respected position in society." Murton was shocked by the inhuman sentence. "But I've always been so generous with her!" he exclaimed. In 1877, Thomas Harlow killed his wife with one blow for refusing to give him money earned from street trading for drinks. The judge found him guilty, but commuted the sentence due to the fact that Harlow was provoked. On the other hand, when a husband-killer found herself in the dock, she could not count on mercy. In 1869, Susanna Palmer stabbed to death her husband, who beat her for 10 years. Desperate, the woman took the children and fled, hoping to start life anew. But Palmer found the fugitive, took away and sold all of her property. Then she attacked him with a knife. The woman was sentenced to a long prison sentence and it never occurred to anyone that she was also provoked.

As you can see, the lives of women in the 19th century were not nearly as cloudless as can be judged from the paintings of salon artists. Perhaps luxurious silk dresses hide traces of bruises, and tender mothers touchingly hugging their children will cry in the courtroom in a few years. Nevertheless, they did not give up, but continued to fight for their rights - those rights that we enjoy now.

Jean Louis Forain, The Weak and the Opressed

Frederick James Evans, A Frugal Meal

Konstantin Savitsky, Family Quarrel

Margaret Murray Cookesley, The Gambler "s Wife

George Elgar Hicks, Mrs. Hicks, Mary, Rosa and Elgar

Augustus egg

Jean Louis Forain, Absinthe

Punch and Judy

Caricature of "Judge Thumb"
Judge: Who needs a cure for a bad wife? Buy family fun for long winter evenings! Fly in!
Woman: Help, for God's sake! They kill!
Man: They kill, what else! This is the law, you are such rubbish - a stick is not thicker than my thumb!