As a result of numerous studies in different countries, an amazing picture has opened up - from birth to 3 years, the child goes through half of his intellectual development, i.e. in the very first hours of life, the basic qualities of his psyche are laid, his first abilities begin to form.

It is these first years that are very dependent on adults, what they will do for the development of the child. Unfortunately, the majority, focusing in the first years of the baby's life on caring for him, do not attach much importance to the conditions of his development.

The ability to develop does not remain unchanged. after birth, along with the growth of the baby, his brain matures and becomes capable of functioning. This time is the best for the beginning of the development of all diverse human abilities.

Early age is a period of rapid formation of all psychophysiological processes. / For 1 year, the weight of the child triples (the next tripling of weight occurs only by 10-11 years). Growth increases by 1 year by 40%, another 40% uv. after 5 months

The physical and neuropsychological development of children in the first two years of life is characterized by a fast pace. During this period, the growth and weight of the child increases intensively, all the functions of the body intensively develop. By the year the child masters independent walking. In the second and third years of life, his basic movements are improved, he begins to coordinate his motor activity with others.

He makes great strides in mastering his native language.

The active dictionary of a one-year-old child has 10-12 words, by 2 years old - up to 200-300, by 3 - up to 1500 words.

At an early age, children are characterized by great instability of their emotional state. Ensuring a positive emotional attitude, their balanced behavior, and protecting the nervous system are important tasks of early childhood pedagogy.

The imperfection of the nervous processes (the prevalence of excitement over inhibition) is manifested in the peculiarities of children's behavior: they are excitable, move a lot, are incapable of expectations.

In children, conditioned reflexes are easily formed and it is difficult to remake them. This obliges teachers to timely form the necessary skills in children. Avoid bad habits.

The lack of mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the difficulty of transition from sleep to wakefulness and from wakefulness to sleep and other situations (classes)

The early functioning of the cerebral cortex provides the possibility of raising children from the first months of life.

On day 9-10, the first conditioned reflex to the feeding position is developed.

By 3 months, the baby can develop conditioned reflexes with the participation of all analyzers.

The development of the brain is ensured by its intense activity under the influence of external influences, under the influence of education. If there are no external influences or they are not enough, then the development of the central nervous system is delayed. These provisions put forward N.M. The Shchelovanovs were given the opportunity to discover the cause of mental hospitalism that took place in children. institutions in the early years of Soviet power.

Hospitalismit is defined as a set of negative impacts that inhibit the physical and mental development of a child brought up in a closed-type institution. Changes in the normal course of development and behavior of children occur as a result of improper organization of the lives of children in an institution, underestimation of the role of education in the first years of life (movement restrictions and medical and hygienic care.

The phenomenon of hospitalism is characterized as follows:

A sharp lag in the main indicators of physical development (weight, height, chest circumference, a large number of diseases)

Mental hospitalism is manifested in general lethargy, low mobility in the late development of movements (only by the age of 2 children master walking), speech (by the age of 3 separate words are uttered)

A negative emotional state predominates, various obsessive movements arise in the form of automatic shaking of the head, body or arm.

Under the direction of N.M. Aksarina and N.M. Shchelovanova in our country created a system for the education of young children. Its implementation helped to quickly overcome hospitalism in preschool institutions.

INthe higher nervous activity of a young child has its own characteristics. Conditioned reflexes occur in children relatively quickly, but are fixed slowly. Many conditioned reflexes, and, consequently, skills, habits, learned rules of behavior, even by the age of three, are not stable enough. And if they are not reinforced, they are easily destroyed.

The higher nervous activity of young children is characterized by an imbalance of the two main nervous processes. Excitation processes prevail over inhibition processes. Positive conditioned reflexes are generated faster than inhibitory reflexes. It is much easier for a kid to learn to do something than to teach to refrain from unwanted action. The inhibitory conditioned reflexes require more repetitions than the positive conditioned reflexes.

It is precisely because of these features that it is very difficult for a small child to maintain an inhibitory state for a long time (for example, to stand quietly near her mother and wait for her to discuss all the problems with her friend). Begin to form inhibitory conditioned reflexes that delay the child’s activity on the word “impossible”, should be already at the end of the first year of life. In the second or third year, it is necessary to explain to the baby why one or another item cannot be taken, why actions must be stopped. The features of higher nervous activity of children include the relatively weak mobility of nervous processes. Children cannot quickly start or slow down any action. Therefore, you can not require them to quickly switch from one type of activity to another:

This is the period of the most rapid physical and psychic development of the child. Features of this period - it provides the general development of the child., Which serves as the foundation for the acquisition of any special knowledge and skills and the development of various types of activities. One of the features of preschoolers is that they love share with each other their knowledge and skills. This feature is explained by the activity of the child’s nature, as well as by the fact that the child is always closer to another child mentally, so he can be more accessible about \\ yasnit than vzroslyy.deti preschool usually easy to memorize a speech, often memorize mechanically, without thinking in the sense of what he heard, usually without realizing it. Involuntary attention is inherent, they are easily distracted and cannot be focused on any one subject or phenomenon for a long time.

Tasks of sensory education. The content of sensory education.

Taskssensory education of preschool children:

1) the formation in children of a system of perceptual (examination) actions;

2) the formation in children of a system of sensory standards;

3) the formation in children of the ability to independently apply the system of perceptual actions and the system of sensory standards in practical cognitive activities.

The content of sensory education is a circle of properties and qualities, relations of objects and phenomena that must be mastered by a child of preschool age. The successful implementation of practical actions depends on a preliminary perception and analysis of what needs to be done. The ability to perceive objects, analyze them, compare, generalize is not formed by itself in the course of a particular activity; special training is required on a specific system. So, it is important to distinguish in objects the shape, size, color, materials, parts and their spatial relationship, speed and direction of movement of the object relative to others, the ratio of objects in size, distance of objects, etc. The sensory education program also includes methods for examining objects, for example: stroking to highlight smoothness or roughness; compression, pressure to determine hardness or softness; palm weighing to determine mass, etc. The sensory education program also includes Sensory reference system  - These are generalized ideas about the properties, qualities and relationships of objects. These are standards of color (spectrum colors), shapes (geometric planar and volumetric forms), spatial position and directions (top, bottom, left, right, etc.), size standards (meter, kilogram, liter, etc.), time duration ( minute, second, hour, day, etc.), sound standards, speech sounds, pitch ranges (tone, semitone), etc. A child in life encounters a huge variety of shapes, colors and other properties of objects. Mastering the system of sensory standards and their verbal designations facilitates the child's orientation in the world around him, helps him to see the familiar in the unfamiliar, notice the features of the unfamiliar, and accumulate new sensory experience. The child becomes more independent in cognition and activity, rises to a new, higher level of knowledge - generalized and systematized.

54. Stages and methods of sensory education of pupils.

The conditions for sensory education in kindergarten are:

1. meaningful, productive activities of children.

Productive activity (drawing, modeling, application, design) to. Only creates favorable conditions for the development of sensations and perceptions, but also causes the need to master the form, color, spatial orientations;

2. the use in the didactic process of various means and forms of educational organization:   classes, didactic games, didactic exercises.

In the methodology of sensory education  Preschoolers can distinguish several stages.

The purpose of stage I   is an catching the attention of children   to that sensory attribute that must be mastered. For this, the teacher offers the children something to draw, dazzle, build, make some kind of object, which should be similar to the sample or satisfy certain requirements. If the children do not have sufficient sensory experience, they begin to complete the task without analyzing the sample, without selecting the right material. As a result, the drawing or the construction is different. Inability to achieve a result in the activity puts the child in front of the need for knowledge, highlighting the features of objects, material. An adult helps children to see, highlight, realize the property that should be considered in the activity. This point is the starting point for teaching children how to highlight the properties and characteristics of objects.

Goal 2 - training   children perceptual actions and the accumulation of ideas about sensory signs. In the learning process, the teacher shows and calls the perceptual action and the sensory impression that was the result of the examination. Then, he offers the children to repeat all this. The most important thing is to organize multiple exercises in highlighting different qualities. It is important to monitor the accuracy of the method that the child uses, the accuracy of verbal notation.

The purpose of the 3rd stage is the formation of ideas about the standards . At an early age, the child assimilates the sensorimotor pre-standards when it displays only certain features of objects - some features of the shape, size of objects, distance, etc. At the age of 5 years, the child uses subject standards, i.e. images of the properties of objects correlates with certain objects. For example: "an oval is like a cucumber", "a triangle such as the roof of a house." In older preschool age, children master the system of generally accepted standards, when the properties of objects themselves acquire a reference value in isolation from a particular subject. During this period, the child already correlates the quality of the objects with the adopted generally accepted standards of objects: green grass, an apple like a ball, the roof of the house is triangular, etc. Children are taught to use the acquired standards of qualities for the analysis of objects, they are taught to compare the subject with the standard, to notice the similarities and differences.

The goal of the 4th stage is to create conditions for independent use by children of acquired knowledge and skills in the analysis of the surrounding reality and in the organization of their own activities. An important system of knowledge is required here, which requires independent analysis and consideration of certain qualities, properties, and relationships. For example, the selection of materials and tools for labor, etc. All types of activities are widely used both in the classroom and in everyday life.

55. The formation of early childhood education.

Pedagogy RD began vyd. in myself. area of \u200b\u200bknowledge at the beginning of XX century. Views on the pedagogy of the Republic of Dagestan were initially formed in the context of ideas about the age of children from birth to admission to school. The number of scientists and practicing teachers, emphasizing the importance of the first years of life for the next person, argued that the best conditions for the eighth and education of young children can only be in the family.

I. Comenius   (1592-1670) in his work "The Great Didactics" laid the foundation of the public education system, formulated the general laws of ped. phenomena, outlined the main problems of pedagogy - goals, objectives, content, methods, organizational forms of education, identified 4 stages of development of the younger generation  - childhood, adolescence, youth, maturity.

J.-J. Russo (1712-1778).   He believed that “the children themselves must have eight children,” and he brought up. the process should be brought into line with the nature of the child and the natural laws of his child

I. Pestalozzi (1746-1827).   He argued that the goal of vos-i is to “identify the true humanity ”, and that to the realization of their connection with  by the human race, each comes in the process of family vos-i. In the “Book for Mothers,” he wrote about how a mother should develop a child from an early age, and lead him to knowledge of the environment. peace, re-love people, instill labor skills. Pestalozzi pointed out that in societies. sun, and you should use those advantages, cat. possesses home vos.

F. Frebel (1782-1852) attached paramount importance to the upbringing of a small child in the family.

M. Montessori (1870-1952). She was a supporter of free vos-i, the basis of her system was the idea that the child has an inborn need for freedom and spontaneity .. Montessori developed a standardized auto-dict. materials that themselves encourage children, freely choosing one or another occupation, to perform actions as the teacher intended. Acting with insert cubes, frames with clasps, key boards, etc., the child acquires knowledge and skills, develops observability, patience, will, ability to discover and correct his own

mistakes. Montessori pedagogy makes it possible to educate children not through direct exposure to them, but through the organization of specials. images Wednesday.

Humanistic ideas developed in the writings of J. Komensky, J.-J. Russo, I. Pestalozzi, formed the basis of the theory and practice of Western European and domestic pedagogy. A great contribution to the development of societal systems of children was made by such outstanding teachers as F. Frebel, K.D. Ushinsky, P.F. Lesgaft and others

The first institutions of public education for young children were shelters; mass nurseries and kindergartens began to be organized in the XX centuries. in connection with the involvement of women in production. The transfer of educational functions to the state led to the need to create special image programs in Russia, the first image. The programs of the eight children of the Republic of Dagestan were created in the 30-50s of the XX century. In the 60s, a model “Education program for children” was created and put into practice, an integral part of which was a program for the education of young children. Within the framework of this program, tasks, content and methods of working with children were developed, aimed at physical, mental, aesthetic and moral development. This program was based on the principles of authoritarian pedagogy. In the 80-90s, in connection with the reform of education, there was a turn to a personality-oriented pedagogy aimed at creating the most favorable conditions for the disclosure and development of each child’s abilities, respect for his personality, dignity, and ensuring full value his life at every age stage. The implementation of the principles of democratization and humanization of education presupposes the variability of education, i.e. variety of organizational forms of education and educational programs.

56. The value of social and moral education of preschool children. Features of social and moral education and development of preschool children. MORAL EDUCATION of preschool children - the educator's focused activities on the formation of moral feelings in children, ethical ideas, inculcation of norms and rules of behavior that determine their attitude to themselves, other people, things, nature, society

The MORAL DEVELOPMENT of preschoolers is a process of positive qualitative changes in the moral ideas, feelings, skills and motives of children's behavior.

The foundations of a highly moral personality are laid in preschool age, as evidenced by the research of A.N. Leontiev, B, S. Mukhina, S.G. Jacobson, V.G. Nechaeva, T.A. Markova and others.

In preschool years, under the guidance of adults, the child acquires the initial experience of behavior, attitudes towards loved ones, peers, things, nature, learns the moral standards of the society in which he lives. Preschool age is characterized by great opportunities for the moral education of children: in various developing types of their activities, some methods of conscious control of their behavior, activity, independence, initiative are successfully formed. In a peer society, positive relationships are established between preschoolers, benevolence and respect for others are formed, a feeling of camaraderie and friendship arises. Proper education prevents the child from accumulating negative experience and prevents the development of unwanted skills and behavior habits, which can adversely affect the formation of his moral qualities.

Early childhood  - This is a period from 1 year to 3 years. At this age, changes occur in personal development, the cognitive sphere, and the social situation of development.

Neoplasms of infancy lead to changes in the relationship between the child and the adult, which in turn leads to the formation of a new social development situation, which consists in the emergence of joint activities of a child and an adult,as well as the fact that this activity is becoming subject.The essence of joint activity is the assimilation of socially developed ways of using objects, that is, an adult teaches a child to use the surrounding objects correctly, and also explains why they are needed and where to use them. The social situation of the development of the child at this age looks like this: “The child - SUBJECT - adult.” As can be seen from this triad, the subject is important for the child. You can verify this by observing how the child plays: he constantly looks at the subject that he is passionate about, be it a typewriter, chair, doll, spoon, etc. You may feel that he doesn’t need anything else and no one needed, his attention is focused only on the object of passion. But this is not so, since without an adult a child cannot master the human ways of using objects.

Joint activity becomes objective because the motive of this activity lies in the subject itself and in the way it is used. Communication at this age takes the form of organization of objective activity. In other words, it occurs at the moment of explaining the correctness of the use of a particular subject. Communication develops intensively and becomes verbal, because mastering objects using only emotional coloring cannot be effective.

6.2. The development of the cognitive sphere of the child

At this age, perception, thinking, memory, speech develop. This process is characterized by verbalization of cognitive processes and the occurrence of their arbitrariness.

Perception developmentdetermined by three parameters: perceptual actions(the integrity of the perceived subject), sensory standards(the emergence of standards of sensations: sound, light, taste, tactile, olfactory) and correlation actions.In other words, the process of perception is to highlight the most characteristic qualities of a given subject or situation, signs, properties; drawing up on their basis a certain image; correlation of these images-standards with objects of the world. So the child learns to divide objects into classes: dolls, cars, balls, spoons, etc.

Since the year, the process of cognition of the surrounding world begins to actively develop. A child from one year to two years old uses different options to perform the same action, and from a year and a half to two years old he has the ability to solve the problem by guessing (insight), that is, the child suddenly finds a solution to this problem, avoiding trial and error.

From the second year of life, the perception of the child changes. By learning to act with one object on another, it is able to predict the outcome of the situation, for example, the possibility of dragging a ball through an opening, moving one object with another, etc. A child can distinguish between such shapes as a circle, oval, square, rectangle, triangle, polygon; colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet.

Thanks to the development of perception, at the end of an early age, the child begins to develop mental activity. This is expressed in the emergence of the ability to generalize, transfer the experience gained from the initial conditions to new ones, to establish communication between objects by experimenting, remembering them and using them in solving problems. A one and a half year old child can predict and indicate the direction of movement of the object, the location of a familiar object, overcome obstacles to achieving the desired goal. And after a year and a half, there appears a reaction of choosing an object according to the most vivid and simple signs: shape and color.

In early childhood continues development of thinkingwhich from visual-effective gradually turns into visual-figurative, that is, actions with material objects are replaced by actions with images. The internal development of thinking goes this way: intellectual operations develop and concepts are formed.

Visual-effective thinking arises towards the end of the first year of life and remains leading up to 3.5–4 years. At first, the child can abstract and highlight the shape and color, therefore, when grouping objects, he first of all pays attention to the size and color of the object. At the age of about two years, he allocates objects based on significant and non-essential features. At 2.5 years old, a child allocates objects according to essential signs: color, shape, size.

A feature of thinking in early childhood is syncretism. Syncretismmeans non-fragmentation: a child, solving a problem, does not single out individual parameters in it, perceiving the situation as an integral picture. The role of the adult in this case is to isolate from the situation and analyze individual details, from which the child will then highlight the main and secondary.

Visual-figurative thinking occurs in 2.5–3 years and remains leading up to 6–6.5 years. The formation of this thinking is associated with the formation of elementary self-awareness and the beginning of the development of the ability for voluntary self-regulation, accompanied by a developed imagination.

Memory development.By two years, the child develops RAM. Easy logical and thematic games are available to him, he can draw up a plan of action for a short period of time, does not forget the goal set a few minutes ago.

Speech development.Up to a year, a child can already call a spade a spade. He has a wealth of experience in understanding the world around him, he has an idea of \u200b\u200bparents, food, environment, toys. And yet, from the many qualities contained in the word as in a concept, the child first assimilates only certain properties characteristic of the subject with which this word was originally associated in his perception.

A one-year-old child reacts to words as a situation in general. The word is associated with the situation, and not with the object representing it. The child carefully watches the facial expressions, gestures of a talking adult, capturing the meaning of what is being said.

From 11 months, the transition begins from pre-phonemic to phonemic speech and the formation of a phonemic hearing, which ends by two years, when a child can distinguish words that differ from each other in one phoneme. The transition from pre-phonemic to phonemic speech lasts 3 years and ends in the fourth year of life. At 3 years old, the child learns to use cases correctly, begins to use first-word sentences, then, at the age of 1.5 to 2.5 years, he can combine words, combining them into two-three-word phrases or sentences of two words, where there is a subject and predicate. Then, thanks to the development of the grammatical structure of speech, he masters all cases and is able to build complex sentences with the help of official words. At the same time, conscious control arises over the correct pronunciation of speech utterances.

After 1.5 years, the activity of independent speech and verbal communication is noted. The child begins to ask the names of objects or phenomena of interest to him. At first, he uses sign language, facial expressions and pantomimics or a pointing gesture, and then a question expressed in verbal form is added to the gesture. The child learns through speech to control the behavior of other people. But a child aged 2.5 to 3 years cannot follow the instructions of adults, especially when you need to choose one action from several; he will be able to make this choice only closer to 4 years.

During the second year of life, the child begins to learn the verbal designation of surrounding objects, and then the names of adults, the names of toys and only then - parts of the body, i.e. nouns, and by the age of two, under normal development, understands the meaning of almost all words related to the surrounding reality . This is facilitated by development. semantic functionchildren's speech, i.e., the definition of the meaning of a word, its differentiation, refinement and assignment to words of generalized meanings that are associated with them in the language.

By the age of 2, children have a clear idea of \u200b\u200bthe purpose of the household items and personal hygiene products surrounding them. They understand common questions that require a yes or no answer.

About 3 years old, the child begins to listen carefully to what adults are talking about, loves when stories, tales, and poems are read to him.

Up to 1.5 years, the child learns from 30 to 100 words, but rarely uses them. By 2 years old, he knows 300 words, and by 3 years - 1200-1500 words.

The following stages were distinguished in the development of speech:

1) syllables (instead of words);

2) sentence words;

3) two-word sentences (for example, “mom here”);

4) sentences of three or more words;

5) correct speech (grammatically agreed sentences).

The main trends in the development of speech of a young child are as follows.

Passive speech in development is ahead of active.

The child discovers that each item has its own name.

At the border of the 2nd and 3rd year of life, the child intuitively “discovers” that the words in the sentence are interconnected.

There is a transition from the polysemy of children's words to the first functional generalizations based on practical actions.

Phonemic hearing is ahead of articulation. The child first learns to listen to speech correctly, and then to speak correctly.

The mastery of the syntactic structure of the language is carried out.

Speech functions develop, there is a transition from indicative (indicative) to nominative (denoting) speech functions.

6.3. Personal education

In early childhood, along with the development of the cognitive sphere, personal development also takes place. Happens first personal socializationa child, because, watching adults, he tries to imitate them: to do as they do, to behave as they behave in certain situations. The process of imitation goes through communication and interaction of an adult and a child. Thus, observing the behavior of people and imitation of them becomes one of the main sources of personal socialization of the child. In the development of personality, an important role is played by the feeling of affection, which is formed in the child by the end of the first year of life and continues to develop in early childhood. The reason for attachment, perhaps, lies in the fact that adults satisfy the basic needs of the child, reduce their anxiety, provide safe living conditions and an active study of the surrounding reality, form the basis for normal relationships with people at a more mature age.

When the mother is next to the child, he is more active and inclined to study the environment. A positive assessment of the actions and personal qualities of the child by the parent forms a feeling of self-confidence in him, faith in his abilities and capabilities. If a child is attached to his parents and they pay him the same, then he is more obedient and disciplined. If the parents are friendly, attentive and strive to meet the needs of the child, then he develops personal, personal affection.

If a child is deprived of constant positive emotional contact with his mother or loved ones, then in the future he will have problems in establishing normal, trusting relationships with others.

In early childhood occurs the formation of self-awareness.The development of self-awareness will lead to the formation of self esteem(for details, see 3.6). Development is marked independence.The phrase "I myself" is the best way speaks of its manifestation. The child no longer always wants to be helped. Having mastered walking, he finds himself obstacles, obstacles and tries to overcome them. All this gives the child pleasure and testifies to the fact that such qualities as willpower, perseverance, determination are beginning to take shape in him.

At this age, many children show disobedience. When they are told that this cannot be done, they continue to do it their own way. Often this is due to the desire of children to learn about the world as quickly as possible.

From the age of 1.5, the child begins to realize his abilities and his own personality traits. A two-year-old child understands that it can influence people and achieve the desired goal.

In children begins to develop empathy  - understanding of the emotional state of another person. One can observe how a one and a half year old child seeks to console a frustrated person: he hugs him, kisses him, gives him a toy, etc.

The child has a need in achieving success.This need is formed in stages. First, the child begins to be aware of his successes and failures, then he can explain the successes and failures of other people, then he gains the ability to distinguish tasks by degree of difficulty and assess the measure of development of his own skills necessary to complete this task, and, finally, he can evaluate his abilities and applied efforts.

Table 5

The main achievements in the mental development of a child from 1 to 3 years

In the table. 5 shows the achievements of the child’s mental development, with which he approaches the crisis of three years.

6.4. The crisis of three years

The crisis of three years is characterized by the fact that personality changes that occur with a child lead to a change in his relationship with adults. This crisis arises because the child begins to separate himself from other people, realizes his abilities, feels himself a source of will. He begins to compare himself with adults, and he involuntarily has a desire to perform the same actions as they, for example: "When I grow up big, I will brush my teeth myself."

At this age, the following traits appear: negativism, stubbornness, depreciation, obstinacy, self-will, protest rebellion, despotism. These characteristics were described by L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that the emergence of such reactions contributes to the emergence of the need for respect and recognition.

Negativismmanifests itself in a negative reaction to the demand or request of an adult, and not to the action itself. For example, a child ignores the demands of one family member or teacher, while others obey. It was also noted that negativity mainly manifests itself in relationships with relatives, and not with strangers. Perhaps, unconsciously, the child feels that such behavior in relation to relatives will not cause him serious harm. Therefore, one must remember that negativity and disobedience are two different things.

Another characteristic of the crisis of three years is stubbornness.His reason is not the desire of the child at all costs to get what he wants or desired, but because his opinion is taken into account. It does not matter to the child whether he will receive this thing or not, he needs to establish himself in his “adulthood”, that his opinion also means something. Therefore, a stubborn child will insist on his own, even if he does not really need this thing.

The next characteristic is depreciation  - inherent in all crises. It manifests itself in the fact that all the habits and values \u200b\u200bthat used to be expensive begin to depreciate. For example, a child may abandon or even break a toy he loved in the past, refuses to abide by previously accepted rules of behavior, now considering them unreasonable, etc.

Obstinacyit is directed against accepted norms of behavior in the family and is similar to negativity and stubbornness. For example, if a family has dinner together, then the child begins to refuse to eat at this time, and then he has an appetite.

Self-willexpressed in the desire of the child to do everything himself. If in infancy he strove for physical independence, now his behavior is aimed at the independence of intentions and intentions. This behavior is manifested not only in the actions proposed by adults, for example: “Do it yourself”, “You are already big and you can do it”, etc., but also in the stubborn desire to do so, and not otherwise. This feeling captures the child to such an extent that he openly contrasts his desires with the expectations of others. The manifestation of independence is reflected in relationships with adults. When a child realizes that he can do something myselfhe doesn’t need adult help. They should understand this and try to avoid negative statements on this subject, not criticize the child, but allow him to show independence.

Protest riotexpressed in frequent quarrels between children and parents. According to L.S. Vygotsky, “the child is at war with others, in constant conflict with them” (Vygotsky LS, 1991).

Manifestations despotismthese are: the child begins to dictate to everyone around him how to behave, and strives to be obeyed and acted as he says. Similar behavior can occur when the child is alone in the family or the last one.

6.5. Leading activities in early childhood

In early childhood, the leading becomes subject activitywhich affects both mental development and communication with adults.

In infancy, the activity is manipulative in nature: the child can repeat the actions shown by adults, transfer the learned action to another subject, and master some of his own actions. But, by manipulating, the child uses only the external properties and relations of objects. In early childhood, objects for a child become not just an object, but a thing that has a specific purpose and a certain way of using it. The child is trying to master more and more new actions of the subject, and the role of an adult is to mentor, collaborate, help in difficult situations.

Performing manipulations with the subject at the end of infancy and at the beginning of early childhood, the child will never be able to understand its functions. For example, he can open and close the cabinet door an infinite number of times, but he will never understand its functional purpose. Only an adult can explain why this or that thing is needed.

Mastering the purpose of the subject does not guarantee that the child will use it only for its intended purpose, but it is important that he will know how, when and where to do it. For example, learning that pencils are needed for writing and drawing, a child can nevertheless roll them around the table or build something from them.

First, the action and the subject in the understanding of the child are closely related. An example of this is the following fact: he cannot comb his hair with a stick or drink from a cube. But over time, the separation of the subject from the action.

There are three phases of the development of the connection between the action and the subject:

1) any action can be performed with the item;

2) the item is used only for its intended purpose;

3) the free use of the subject is possible, but only if its true purpose is known.

D.B. Elkonin identified two areas for the development of substantive activity:

1. The development of action from joint with an adult to independent performance.

The path of development of action from joint to independent was investigated by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov. They showed that first orientation, execution and evaluation of the action are the responsibility of the adult. This is manifested, for example, in the fact that an adult takes the handles of a child and performs actions by them. Then a partial or joint action is performed, that is, the adult begins it, and the child continues. Then the action is performed on the basis of the show and, finally, on the basis of the speech direction.

2. The development of means and methods of orientation of the child in the context of the action. It goes through several stages. The first stage consists of:

a) in the non-specific use of tools (manipulation of objects);

b) the use of the object, when the methods of its application have not yet been formed, for example, the child understands what the spoon is for, but takes it very low when eating;

c) mastery of a specific method of use.

The second stage occurs when the child begins to perform actions in an inadequate situation. In other words, the action is transferred from one subject to another, for example, a child learning to drink from a mug drinks from a glass. There is also a transfer of action according to the situation, for example, learning to shoe boots, the child tries to pull them on the ball.

The third stage is accompanied by the emergence of a game action. Here, the adult does not tell the child what to do, how to play or use the item.

Gradually, the child begins to correlate the properties of objects with operations, that is, learns to determine what an object can best do, what operations are most suitable for a particular object.

The stages of the formation of such bindings were identified by P.Ya. Halperin. He believed that at the first stage the child varies his actions based not on the properties of the tool with which he wants to get the object he needs, but on the properties of the object itself. He called this stage “targeted sampling”. At the second stage - “trapping” - the child finds an effective way of acting with the subject and tries to repeat it. At the third stage - the “stage of intrusive interference” - he tries to reproduce an effective way of influence and master it, at the fourth stage he opens up ways to regulate and change the action, taking into account the conditions in which it will have to be performed.

Corresponding and instrumental actions turn out to be significant for mental development.

Related actionsconsist in bringing several objects into certain spatial interactions - for example, folding pyramids from rings, using collapsible toys, etc.

Gun actions  - these are actions in which one item is used when acting on other items. The child takes possession of the instrumental actions in the learning process under the guidance of an adult.

It was found that instrumental actions can be an indicator of the intellectual development of children, and subjective ones indicate the degree of their education, the breadth of contacts with adults.

By the end of early childhood, in the instrumental activity, the game and productive activities begin.

Early childhood covers a period of 1-3 years. Early childhood is a period of formation in a child of the first self-image, self-esteem, sexual identification, the development of thinking and speech.

Mental development of children 1-3 years old

Mental development in early childhood allows the child to work with objects, but the child himself cannot discover the social actions of these objects. This contradiction will be solved in the joint work of a child and an adult with objects.

  The social situation of development in early childhood: "child-subject-adult." In early childhood, the entire subject is occupied by the child; he watches how an adult works with the subject and tries to do the same. Without an adult, a baby will not be able to master the world of objects.

Leading activities during early childhood

The leading activity in early childhood is substantive activity. The transition from infancy to early childhood is associated with the development in the child of a new attitude to the world of objects.

Age boundaries of early childhood from 1 year to 3 years. In the beginning, the child learns the direct purpose of the subject and, with the help of an adult, learns how to use the subject correctly, but gradually the child acquires the ability to endow the subject with nonexistent properties and apply the subject in different ways.

The formation of the cognitive sphere

The formation of perception in children occurs through perceptual actions, sensory standards and through correlation actions. The child identifies the qualities characteristic of the subject, on the basis of which he compiles stable images and correlates, in his understanding, the standards with the surrounding objects. The development of perceptual actions helps the development of generalizations, the ability to highlight the main thing allows the child to further form classes and concepts.

A feature of the development of the child during early childhood is the formation of visual-figurative thinking. Visual-effective thinking that occurs in a child by the end of the first year of life is leading up to 4 years. Visual-figurative thinking occurs in a child in 2-3 years and is leading up to 6 or 6.5 years. Therefore, the entire period of early childhood, and the age limits of the period of early childhood are 1-3 years, the child will be dominated by visual and effective thinking, and the child’s task is to learn how to solve various kinds of problems using objects. The child should almost instantly be guided in the application of the subject.

Syncretism - a feature of the child's thinking at a given age - is undifferentiated. The kid does not know how to distinguish individual parts as a whole, the adult's task is to teach, show how analysis is done, and how to separate parts from the whole, the main, secondary.

The formation of the personal sphere

The formation of personality in early childhood develops through communication with adults. The child’s self-esteem is formed on the basis of the adult’s statements about the child. Criticism, remarks, neglect of the child - reduce the level of claims of the child, generate self-doubt, interfere with successful activities.

The personal neoplasm of early childhood is:

• development of the emotional-need sphere of the child;
• development of self-awareness: turning to oneself in the third person, the appearance of the “I” in three years;
• the appearance of primary self-esteem;
• crisis of 3 years.

The development of a child in 3 years is the emergence of a sense of independence, autonomy. In unfavorable development - a feeling of dependence on an adult.

Speech development in babies 3 years old

The period of 1-3 years of the child is sensitive to speech acquisition. Autonomous speech goes into the child’s own active speech.

The development of speech in early childhood goes in two directions: improving understanding of adult speech; own active speech develops.

A child does not immediately correctly name objects and their actions. One and a half year old baby can learn from 30-40 words to 100, but rarely uses words. Child 2 years old - uses 300 words, Child 3 years old can communicate with the use of 500 to 1500 words.

Characteristics of the speech of a child of 3 years:

• vocabulary expansion;
• improved pronunciation of words;
• mastering the grammatical structure of the native language;
• acquisition of a coherent character of speech;
• the child knows almost all parts of speech;
• speech is a complete means of communication;
• understanding of the grammatical basis of the language and syntax.

Illustration of pixabay.com

• 1. What specific developmental features for early childhood do you know?
• 2. What is the difference between the concepts of “leading type of activity” and “leading lines of development”?
• 3. What is the difference and how are the unevenness and spasmodic development?
• 4. What is the significance of early childhood in ontogenesis?
• 5. What is the role of an adult in the development of an infant and young child?

The development of the child is a process of irreversible, directed and regular changes, leading to the emergence of qualitative and structural transformations at all levels of his integral personality.

The development of a child in early childhood is primarily distinguished by high dynamism, at the most intense pace.Above, we gave a qualitative description of the changes occurring in the first three years, and now for an example we will consider quantitative data related to both the physical and mental (speech) development of children:

The intensive pace of development is associated with such a feature as high ductility(that is, the ability to easily change under the influence of external influences), determining richest potentialdevelopment. As the authors of “early development” systems (G. Doman, P. Tyulenev and others) prove, by the age of three the kid can master several languages, learn to read, print, play a musical instrument, etc. Masaru Ibuka stands in solidarity with them, who has called his book Kindergarten is Too Late, After Three.

The older a child becomes, the slower he learns, for example, a foreign language, the more effort is required from him when learning to read, write and count. According to B.P. Nikitin, who advanced the theory of NUVERS (Irreversible Extinction of Opportunities for the Effective Development of Abilities), at birth each child has tremendous opportunities for developing abilities for any type of activity, but in the absence of appropriate conditions the potential does not turn into reality. Lost opportunities during the years of rapid development will require much longer pedagogical work in the future, and may be lost forever.

Unfortunately, most adults underestimate the importance of the first three years of a child’s life, do not think about what they do every day. After all, this day can be equal to months, or even years of subsequent life.

Therefore, every teacher and parent who has committed to raising a young child should always remember the words of the American psychologist John Watson: “If you spoil the child, but you can do it in a few days, then who can guarantee that this harm can be corrected in the future? ".

The next developmental feature, clearly manifested in the first three years of life, is its unevenness(heterochrony), which determines the allocation of the so-called leading lines of development.

Leading lines of development The directions that are distinguished at a certain age interval are called, within the framework of which the greatest dynamics and plasticity of the formation and development of skills that determine the behavior of a child of a given age and have progressive significance in later life are noted.

For example, in the first month of life, the development of the baby’s visual sphere becomes the leading line. A newborn still cannot move, take toys, etc., but his visual reactions are developing intensively: every day he more successfully captures a bright object with his eyes and traces his movement. According to experimental data E.G. Pilyugina, if an adult, starting from the 4th-7th day of a child’s life, conducts short (within one minute) classes focused on the development of the ability to keep an eye on a moving object several times a day, then by the end of the third week of life, the child’s eye movements become smooth, not losing the toy and on this basis a new skill arises - an active translation of the look from one subject to another. Without special classes, such skills appear only in the third month of life.

The kid who has learned to control the movements of his eyes, most of his wakefulness examines his surroundings, which ensures the satisfaction of the need for impressions, fixes a look on the face of an adult, which becomes the basis for the development of communication activities. Trying to keep an object in sight, the child learns to turn his head.

Thus, it is in the development of the visual sphere of the newborn that we observe all four signs that make it possible to distinguish this line as the leading one.

The uneven development must be distinguished from it spasms,manifested in the alternation of periods of some slowdown in development and leaps, when for a short time significant quantitative and qualitative changes occur. Such leaps are especially pronounced in the development of active speech in children. The child begins to pronounce his first 5-10 words by the year, but until the end of the second year of life, he uses no more than 30 words, without grammatically changing them. At the age of two years (some children earlier, others later), the active vocabulary sharply - in just 2-3 months - increases to 200-300 words, the child begins to build sentences of three or more words, grammatically coordinating them with each other.

A similar jump can be observed in increasing the working capacity of the nervous system, when in 3-4 days the baby increases the period of his wakefulness by an entire hour and then for several months rests on its laurels.

Keeping by parents-educators diaries of observations on the development of their children allows you to see the spasmodic nature of various development lines. Consider, for example, diary entries related to the mastery of walking.

So, the first marks about the baby’s independent steps appear when he is 9 months old: “02/23 - for the first time I took a couple of steps, 02/24 - went four steps to my mother, 02/25 - took two steps from the chair to the table." Over the next three weeks, the child does not manage to take more than two steps, and only on March 17 a new entry appears: “Today seven steps have passed”.

And four days later, on March 21, the baby makes “record 18 steps with drying in his teeth”, while the parent observes that the child “gets better when he walks by himself; and when you call, then, taking 2-4 steps, it falls. " But already on March 25, the baby “almost every minute gets to his feet and walks on his own, holding a toy in his hands, now this is his favorite pastime; 03/27 - he walks himself at every opportunity, passes indescribable distances (with stops and squats). ” And then again the period of slow development begins: only 05/17 the parent makes a note that the child "for the first time for a long time walked independently on the street in boots."

The early childhood period is also characterized by such a feature as the closest relationship between health, physical and mental development.Kids who experience emotional discomfort when enrolling in kindergarten not only partially regress in their psychomotor development, but also restlessly sleep, lose weight, and begin to hurt. On the contrary, providing positive emotionally rich communication, as M.Yu. describes in his study Kistyakovskaya can improve the condition of the child even without drug therapy. So, the author tells the story of the girl Tanya, who entered the research center at the age of 1 year 10 months, having a weight of five months (6.5 kg) and the growth of an 11-month-old child. Tanya was lying all the time, could not keep her head upright, did not take toys and did not even examine them. Teachers began to interact with the girl as a baby in the first months of life - in the form of situational and personal communication. A month later, Tanya began to actively engage in communication with adults, to focus on toys, weight gain was about 1 kg. Three months later, the girl learned to take objects, crawl, sit down.

Examples can also be given that reflect other aspects of this relationship. So, in the study of I.A. Arshavsky newborns were bathed in cool (t 24-28 °) water before almost every feeding. As a result, babies born physiologically immature quickly caught up with peers by anthropometric indicators, earlier they began to hold their heads, crawl, and demonstrated successes in mental development. According to the data of M.M. Koltsova, children of the second year of life, with whom an additional 20-minute exercises were held daily to develop fine motor skills of hands, already after a week of classes were noticeably ahead of their peers in speech classes: if the former actively and accurately repeated the onomatopoeia, the latter were mostly silent.

In early childhood, compared with other age periods, most pronounced individual differencesin the development of babies.

So, for example, according to Yu.M. Khokhryakova, out of 300 children examined, by the time they reached the age of 2 years 3 months, 9% were at I level of sensory development (they performed diagnostic tasks using practical tests), 46% at II level (mastered practical example), 37% at III level (carried out a visual correlation of the size and shape of objects in familiar situations) and 8% - at IV level (freely correlated not only spatial but also color properties of objects based on subject pre-standards).

The wide range of differences in the development of children not only of one age group, but also of one calendar age, requires an individual approach from teachers, and also updates the problem of diagnosing development.

Diagnostics of development carried out during early childhood performs different functions: it serves as the basis for individualization of upbringing and training, and allows timely detection of developmental disorders. However, what is considered the norm of development? Consider, for example, such an indicator as “the child’s use in free speech of at least 10 words”. According to N.M. Aksarina, E.L. Frucht, this indicator characterizes the normal development of children aged one year. In contrast, I.G. Hall and N. Skinner believe that by the year only the most capable babies have a dozen words in the active dictionary, and therefore, as a normative, this indicator should be attributed to the age of one and a half years (18 months). Meanwhile, a mass survey of children, conducted in 2001 in St. Petersburg, revealed the presence of not only individual, but also gender differences in this indicator. Among girls, 50% of those surveyed used ten words by the 17th month, and among boys, only by the 21st month of life. If the “standard bar” is raised to 85%, then for girls the indicator in question will need to be attributed to the 26th month, and for boys to the 31st month.

Child development during early childhood is different most pronounced dependence on adult exposure.If there was no adult next to the newborn, he would not have lived for several hours. And the point here is not only that an adult cares for him. Back in the 13th century, Emperor Friedrich Hohenstaufen decided to conduct an experiment to find out what language (Latin, Greek or German) would be spoken by the children, if they were provided with good care and nutrition, but not communicate with them. According to legend, dumb nurses took care of the babies, but none of the subjects under these conditions lived up to two years and, of course, did not utter a single word.

Similar experiments are made by life itself. During the Second World War, a large number of children separated from their parents found themselves in shelters. Rene Spitz, observing the behavior of such babies, noted that many of them develop a “classic form of hospitalism”: children become apathetic, show a negative attitude towards adults and, despite adequate nutrition and normal hygiene conditions, die.

But it is surprising that the unique process of rapid development of the child in the first three years of life, although it depends on the effects of an adult, at the same time, it would seem, does not require his pedagogical competence. As evidenced, for example, by the ethnographic observations of M. Mead, young children growing up in primitive African cultures are far superior to their European peers in many indicators of psychomotor development. Why it happens? What is guided in their activities by parents who do not have teacher education? We will consider these issues in the next section.

So, early childhood- a special age period in which developmentchild carried most intenseis different high ductility, unevenness and discontinuity,particularly close interconnectionphysical, mental development and health status. This period is characterized by a bright severity of individual differencesin the development of children, as well as the most powerful dependence on the effects of an adult.

Control tasks:

• 1. Give your own examples illustrating each of these features of children's development.
• 2. Give examples that prove or disprove the theory of NUWERS.
• 3. Show on any concrete example the interdependence of the distinguished features of the development of children in early childhood.